Index
- Abal, Abdulaziz, 91
- Abrahamsson, Niclas, 28
- Abrams, Zsuzsanna I., 460
- academic language, 63, 75, 77–78
- Achilleos, Marianna, 155
- agency, learner, 188, 220, 284, 285, 374
- Ahearn, Laura M., 424
- Aichorn, Nathalie, 239
- Ala‐Kyyny, Jenni, 204
- Albirini, Abdulkafi, 66–67
- Aldosemani, Tahani, 93
- Alfred, Mary, 219
- Alm, Antonie, 206, 376
- Al‐Sehri, Saleh, 175
- Alvarez, Sara P., 359
- Alvarez, Steven, 358, 359
- Amazon Kindle, 414, 473
- American English, 27, 193, 344n24, 414
- Arabic language, 66–67, 303, 357
- Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece, 127, 130
- Armour, William S., 210
- Arnon, Inbal, 33
- artificial intelligence (AI), 10, 464
- see also machine‐assisted translation
- attachment theory, 476, 477–478
- Au, Terry K.‐F., 65
- audio‐lingual method (ALM), 125
- audiovisual learning, 183, 185, 189–190, 194, 471
- using subtitles see subtitles, use of
- see also video learning
- Australia, 231, 265
- autoethnographic studies, 5, 17
- autonomous language learning, 274–275, 282–283, 378, 340, 422–434
- apps, 22, 130–131, 423–424
- benefits, 422
- classroom, 427
- communities, 427–428, 432
- games, 103, 423
- and identity, 424
- instructional strategies, 426–427
- interest in, 273
- and metacognition, 425
- online safety, 429–430
- resources, 430–431
- settings, 335
- teacher influence, 10, 285, 389, 425–426, 432–433
- theoretical constructs, 424–425
- see also fully autonomous self‐instructed learning (FASIL); self‐directed learning
- autonomy
- avatars, 87, 88, 89
- Babbel, 17, 110, 125, 129, 130
- Bahri, Hossein, 446
- Bailly, Sophie, 426
- Baker, Colin, 352
- Bakhtin, Mikhail, 352
- Bamford, Julian, 395–396, 400, 401
- Baralo, Marta, 267
- Baralt, Melissa, 69
- Barcelona, Spain, 257, 267
- Barcéna, Elena, 424
- Barfield, Woodrow, 92
- Baron, Andrew, 157
- Barton, David, 153, 155, 156, 158, 159
- Basque language, 353
- Bass, Randy, 376
- Bax, Stephen, 293–294, 410
- BBC Learning Zone, 184
- Beatrice, B.V., 41
- Becker, A.L., 352
- Beentjes, Johannes W.J., 186
- Beglar, David, 398
- Belcher, Diane D., 43
- Belgium, 186
- Bell, Marek, 92
- Bengtsson, Andreas, 329
- Bennett, Elizabeth E., 474, 476
- Benson, Phil, 18, 376, 388, 424, 477
- Berker, T., 374
- Bernaus, Mercè, 16
- Bezemer, Jeff, 155
- Bialystok, Ellen, 232
- Biber, Douglas, 76
- Bierema, Laura L., 171
- Big Bang Theory TV series, 339
- bilingual dictionaries, 442, 446
- bilingual education, 355, 356–357, 361–362, 364
- bilingualism, 61–62, 352–353
- Bishop, Bronwyn, 40, 48
- Black, Rebecca W., 103, 104, 107, 147, 148–149, 388
- Blackledge, Adrian, 354, 359
- Blake, Robert J., 69, 426
- blogs, 173–174, 384, 427, 429, 431
- Blommaert, Jan, 458
- Bock, J. Kathryn, 30
- Booth, Paul, 139
- Bourhis, Richard Y., 244–245, 247, 250
- Bourne, David M., 451, 454
- Bowles, Melissa, 66
- boyd, danah m., 372
- Bradley, Linda, 218, 221
- brain architecture, and language learning, 33–34
- Bravo, Maria da Conceição Condinho, 192
- Brazil, 188, 189
- Breen, Michael P., 425
- Brennan, Moya, 460
- Bristol, UK, 257
- British Council, Hong Kong, 276
- Brown, Barry, 92
- Brown, Mark, 148
- Bull, Susan, 225
- Burger, Günther, 190
- Burston, Jack, 120, 171
- Burwell, Catherine, 249
- Bus, Adriana G., 225
- Busuu, 121, 125, 126–127
- Bystrom, Karl‐Erik, 91–92
- Californication TV series, 339
- Canada
- Canagarajah, Suresh, 43, 352, 353, 357, 364
- Canale, Michael, 146
- Cantonese, 273–274
- Cape Town, South Africa, 263–264
- Carver, Ronald P., 402
- Cavicci, Daniel, 140
- Cenoz, Jasone
- Cerezo Ceballos, Luis, 69
- chained semiosis, 50
- Chan, Hoi Wing, 277, 282, 284
- Chandler‐Ocott, 145
- Chang, Anna C.‐S., 41
- Charitonos, Koula, 177
- Charles, Tendai Juma, 191
- chatrooms, as learning sites, 307, 312, 428
- Chen, Hsin‐I, 461, 463
- Chen, Xiao Bin, 233
- Chen, Yangguang, 207
- Chern, Chiou‐Lan, 248, 254, 389, 458
- Chestnut, Michael, 247
- Cheung, C.‐K., 204, 209–210
- Chik, Alice, 18, 280, 284, 375, 388
- child‐directed speech, 32
- children
- cognitive learning processes, 27–29, 32
- see also first language acquisition
- cognitive learning processes, 27–29, 32
- Childress, Marcus, 91
- China
- Chinese languages, 42, 61, 91
- Cho, Hyeyoon, 386
- Chomsky, Noam, 28, 62, 352
- Christianson, Kiel, 30, 31, 31, 33
- Chuck, 192
- Chun, Dorothy, 416
- classroom teaching strategies
- integrative, 426–427, 464, 480–481
- motivational, 16
- project‐based, 480
- supplementation, 297, 446, 480
- see also explicit learning strategies; pedagogy, language learning
- Club Penguin, 90, 95
- cognitive‐affective learning theory, 191
- cognitive processes in language learning, 28, 30–31, 33, 425
- Cole, Jason, 188, 189, 192, 482
- collaboration, 169, 170–174, 175–178, 385, 416
- Colley Et Al, 172
- Colombia, 325
- Colossal Cave Adventure, 89
- Comas‐Quinn, Anna, 174
- commens.org, 45
- Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), 110, 125, 130, 326–327, 333n2, 340
- communication strategies, 229, 232–239
- communicative competence, 8, 62, 68, 118, 146
- intercultural see cultural competencies
- communicative language teaching (CLT), 47, 63, 69, 118, 293, 375
- communities of coping, 231
- community life, urban, 92–93
- complex dynamic systems theory (CDST), 475–476, 478
- comprehensible input/output hypothesis, 49, 68, 126, 183, 198, 237, 396, 474
- computer‐assisted language learning (CALL), 68, 69–70, 118–119, 378, 483
- computer games, 69, 130, 186
- see also digital gaming; video games
- computer‐mediated communication (CMC), 68, 69–70
- Confucianism, 283, 284
- context‐relevant learning, 174–175
- Cook, Guy, 441–442, 443
- Cook, John, 120
- Copa de la Vida (Ricky Martin), 328
- Cózar‐Gutiérrez, Ramón, 373
- Creese, Angela, 354, 359
- critical digital literacy, 144, 148–149
- Cross, Jay, 153
- crowdsourcing, 378
- Crusan, D., 82
- Crystal, David, 327
- Csizér, Kata, 260
- cultural competencies, 107, 170, 173–175, 226, 235, 466, 467
- Cummins, Jim, 41, 320, 352–353
- Curwood, Jen Scott, 141, 147
- cybercafés, 311, 312, 313
- Cyprus, Nigerian students in, 446, 450
- Cyworld, 219
- Dagilienė, Inga, 442
- Dam, Leni, 426,
- d’Angeljan, Alison, 2
- Daniel, Melinda S., 125–126
- Day, Richard R., 395–396, 400, 401, 402
- de Acosta, Martha, 358
- de Nooy, Juliana, 374
- Debski, Robert, 218
- Deci, Edward L., 477
- DeepL Translator, 447, 448–450
- Deifell, Elizabeth, 446
- Demouy, Valérie, 223
- Derakhshan, Ali, 155
- Dertouzos, Michael, 117
- Despicable Me app, 222
- DeVane, Benjamin, 107
- DeWaard, Helen, 156
- Dewey, Dan P., 260, 261
- dictionary apps, 314, 329, 413–414, 446
- digital composition, 43
- digital gaming, 109, 230, 461
- developers, 112
- as learning tool, 6, 106–113, 386
- multimodal, 388
- and reflection, 112
- research case studies, 107, 108, 277, 280, 360
- spaces see virtual worlds
- and translanguaging, 360
- see also video gaming, as learning platform; virtual reality
- digital learning contexts, 1, 3–4, 6, 118–119, 216–217, 377
- evaluation, 416, 417
- and formal writing, 77, 342
- gaming see digital gaming
- language apps see language learning apps
- learning communities see online learning communities
- mobile devices see mobile devices, as learning platforms
- networks, 216–217
- online assessment tools, 130, 131–132
- participation, 375
- safety, 429–430
- vlogs see video blogs
- see also computer‐assisted language learning (CALL); language learning technology
- digital literacy, 141, 156, 383–390, 459
- critical see critical digital literacy
- digital natives, 410, 454
- digital storytelling, 460
- digital translation, 441–454
- see also machine‐assisted translation
- distance learning, 70, 421, 426
- Doctor Who TV series, 339–340
- Domoney, Liz, 209–210
- Doner, Timothy, 34
- Don’t Wait Up TV series, 187
- Dooley, Karen, 248, 254, 389, 458
- Dooly, Melinda, 375
- Dörnyei, Zoltán, 15, 16, 260, 425
- Dressman, Mark, 4, 294, 297, 480
- dual coding theory (DCT), 224
- Duarte, Joana, 355
- Dubai, 311
- Dubreil, Sébastien, 376
- Duffett, Mark, 140
- Duolingo Incubator, 378
- Duolingo learning platform, 17–24, 109–111, 123–124, 325, 328
- accreditation, 19–20, 24
- bilinguality, 22–23
- and classroom teaching, 20
- criticism of, 111
- forum, 21–22
- language activities, 124, 129
- language competency, 20, 124, 128
- languages offered, 19, 128, 325, 328
- ranking, 121, 122, 123
- research studies, 128–129, 130, 132–133, 325, 423
- specifications, 128
- student survey, 129
- Durán, Leah, 354
- Dutch language, 385
- dynamic immersion approach, 125
- Dyson, Peter, 184
- Early Language Learning in Europe (ELLiE) survey, 185
- eComma, 466
- educational broadcasting, 184, 215, 220
- educational media, 215–226
- broadcast see educational broadcasting
- design, 224–225
- informal, 215–223
- mobile see mobile devices, as learning platforms
- see also computer‐assisted language learning (CALL); digital learning contexts
- Elbow, Peter, 79
- Elega, Adeola Abdulateef, 446, 450
- Ellen DeGeneres Show, The, 289
- Ellis, Nick, 30, 31, 397
- Ellis, Rod, 2, 234, 236, 261, 480
- Ellison, Nicole B., 372
- El Niño (Daniel Monzón), 196
- Elola, Idioia, 388
- employment, 231
- Eneau, Jérôme, 477
- Engh, Dwayne, 204
- English, Kathryn, 375–376
- English as a foreign language (EFL), 175, 325
- English language
- American see American English
- formal study see English as a foreign language (EFL)
- global status, 321–322
- in Germany, 249–253, 458
- in Hong Kong, 283, 284
- linguistic landscapes, 246, 249, 250–254, 479
- in Morocco, 304–317
- in popular culture, 322
- as second language, 126, 327
- in Sweden, 8, 321, 324–325, 326–327
- see also extramural English; online informal learning of English (OILE); informal digital learning of English (IDLE)
- English as a second language (ESL), 126, 327
- see also sec ond language acquisition (SLA)
- Epps, Demmans, 217–218, 220, 221
- Erard, Michael, Babel No More, 34
- Erasmus+ program, 264
- Erickson, Lucy C., 29
- error correction, 62, 233, 237, 386
- Eskilsden, Søren, 457
- ethnographic studies, 157, 259, 266
- EURECAP Project, 192, 195–197, 198
- Europe 2020 strategy, 264
- European Commission, 154
- European Science Foundation, 64
- European Union, 233, 321
- Ewert, Doreen E, 398
- exchange students, 81, 215, 310
- explicit learning, 30, 31, 34
- extensive reading, 395–403
- Extensive Reading Foundation, 397–398
- extramural English (EE), 4, 289, 324, 376, 472
- Facebook, 313, 314, 375–376, 461
- Family Guy, 191
- fandom, 139–142, 460–461
- fan fiction, 6–7, 112, 142–149, 187, 384
- Farmer, Chip, 90
- feedback, learning, 253, 386
- film see movies, as learning platform
- Finland, 461
- Firework (Katy Perry), 208
- first language acquisition, 27–29, 35, 61
- Fitzgerald, Michael, 218
- Flichy, Patrice, 155
- Flew, Terry, 154
- Flickr, 388
- Fodor, Jerry, 28
- Folkestad, Göran, 204
- football, and L2 learning, 107, 310, 328
- formal language learning, 9, 11–12, 57, 101, 194
- bilingual approaches, 442
- bridge with informal learning see informal learning, interface with formal education
- class size, 416
- coursework, 405
- definitions, 4, 322
- home tuition, 263
- oral presentations, 160
- popular dissatisfaction, 111, 112
- qualifications, 19–20
- and reflection, 112, 416
- teaching strategies see classroom teaching strategies
- France, 8–9, 186, 333–347, 480
- Fraser, Catherine C., 261
- Freudian analysis, 50
- Frith, Simon, 205, 209
- Frost, Ram, 29
- Frumuselu, Anca, 191, 192
- Fuchs, Carolin, 374
- fully autonomous self‐instructed learning (FASIL), 194–195, 198, 463, 472
- game‐based learning (GBL), 369, 373
- see also digital gaming
- Game of Thrones TV series, 339
- Gangnam Style (Psy), 329
- Gao, Xuesong (Andy), 281, 424
- Garcia, Ignacio, 124, 446, 450
- García, Ofelia, 351, 352–353, 354, 356, 358, 360, 364
- Garcia‐Mateus, Suzanna, 355
- Gardner, Howard, theory of multiple intelligences, 41
- Gardner, Rachel M., 15, 474
- Gardner, Robert, 262
- Garrity, Sarah, 360
- Gaved, Mark, 218, 221, 222–223
- Gee, James Paul, 79, 103, 219
- gender bias, in language learning, 306, 308, 309–310
- Germain, Claude, 130
- Germany, 253
- Girsai, Nany, 443
- global competencies, 106
- globalization, 17, 155, 291, 458
- Goertler, Senta, 410
- Godwin‐Jones, Robert, 126, 325, 467, 475
- Goodfellow, Robin, 360
- Google Docs, 386
- Google Translate, 3, 443, 446–447, 451, 452–453
- Google Trends, 121, 122
- Gorter, Durk
- Grabe, William, 397
- Graddol, David, 327
- Graff, Mark M., 125
- grammar acquisition, 21, 22, 33, 60, 344–346
- grammar‐translation method, 47, 112–113, 125, 441
- grammatical complexity, 344
- Grand Theft Auto, 102, 107
- Granena, Gisela, 29
- Grant, Scott John, 91
- Grego, John, 124
- Grgurovic, Maja, 69
- Grice, Paul, 51
- Gronstedt, Anders, 92
- Grosjean, François, 353
- Groves, Michael, 447
- Gu, Minguye, 278
- Habbo, 90, 95
- Habitat, 90
- hagwon schools, 291, 292
- Halliday, M.A.K., 42, 52, 118
- Hancox, N., 265
- Hanna, Barbara, 374
- Hardy, Jane E., 398
- Harris, Anne, 218, 220, 221
- Harris, Simon, 209–210
- Hauck, Mirjam, 155, 390
- Hawthorne effect, 108
- He, Peichang, 355–356
- Helmendorf, Heidi, 376
- Henry, Alan, 126
- Henry, Alistair, 327, 328
- heritage language acquisition, 57–70
- heritage languages, 6, 57, 61
- retention by immigrants, 219, 226, 477
- see also heritage language acquisition
- Ho, Jenifer, 375, 462
- Hoechsmann, Michael, 156
- Holliday, Adrian, 275
- Hong Kong, 273–274, 276–277, 283, 285
- autonomous language learning, 274–275, 282–283
- examination culture, 281, 282
- formal language learning, 207, 274–275
- HALL database see Hong Kong Archive of Language Learning (HALL)
- and mainland China, 281
- multilingualism, 8, 273–274, 355–356
- pragmatic approach to learning, 277, 279, 282–283
- primary students, 280
- private tutoring, 274, 282
- research studies, 275, 276–281, 282, 283–285
- secondary students, 276, 277, 278, 279–280, 282, 283, 284
- self‐access centers, 275, 277
- social use of English, 274, 283, 284
- teacher influence, 209–210, 277, 278, 279, 282–283
- technological resources, 274, 278–279, 282
- tertiary students, 108, 275, 276, 277, 279, 281, 282, 283–284
- TV channels, 274
- Hong Kong Archive of Language Learning (HALL), 206
- Hopman, Elise W.M., 33
- Horst, Marlise, 399–400
- hospitality industry, 234, 236–237
- Houghton, Kenneth J., 77
- House of Cards TV series, 340
- Hseih, Hui‐Chen, 69
- Hsu, Ching‐Kun, 42
- Hua, Zhu, 359
- Hubbard, Philip, 155, 410
- Huffman, Jeffrey C., 399
- Hulstijn, Jan, A., 397
- Hult, Francis M., 320
- Hung, Shao Ting, 159
- Hyland, Ken, 78, 276, 278, 279
- Hyltenstam, Kenneth, 28, 33, 34
- Hymes, Dell H., 118
- hyperglots, 34
- ICT see language learning technologies
- identity formation, 165, 424–425
- Iida, Sumiko, 210
- Ikonta, Nonye R., 126
- immigrant language learning, 7, 19, 64, 215–226
- implicature, 51–52
- implicit learning, 34, 60, 396–397, 401
- incidental learning, 171, 192, 405, 412–413, 460
- India, 192
- Informal Adult Learning (Knowles), 478
- informal digital learning of English (IDLE), 4, 289, 294–298, 472
- and formal pedagogy, 297
- potential of, 289–290
- research studies, 289, 290, 294–295
- teacher role, 297–298
- technology, 297
- see also extramural English (EE); online informal learning of English (OILE)
- informal language learning, 4, 154, 230, 324, 450, 472
- community‐based, 458
- digital see digital learning contexts
- holistic approach, 483–484
- interdisciplinary perspectives, 478–480
- and literacy, 316–317
- psycholinguistic mechanisms, 474
- receptive, 65, 220, 276, 279, 283–284, 285, 337–338
- senior interest, 482
- technology see language learning technology
- tools and strategies, 411–415
- in the wild, 65, 457
- see also informal reading; informal writing; linguistic landscapes
- informal learning, 230, 323, 406, 421, 472–478
- and agency see agency, learner
- integration into classroom teaching see informal learning, interface with formal education
- complexity, 472
- of languages see informal language learning
- long‐term benefits, 408
- online see online informal learning
- short‐term benefits, 408
- teacher support see teacher support for informal learning
- theoretical constructs, 475–478
- informal learning, interface with formal education, 169–170, 336, 376, 403–418, 421–434, 463–464, 466–467
- as continuum, 405–406
- designing, 415–416, 464
- financial constraints, 430
- linguistic landscapes, 244
- parallel phenomena, 376
- pedagogical activities, 376, 389, 463, 464
- reading, 396, 403
- role of technology, 405–417, 464
- supplementation, 297, 446, 480
- teacher resistance to, 177, 388, 463, 464
- teacher strategies, 176, 177, 389, 426–427, 464, 480–481
- transnational, 223–224
- see also translanguaging
- informal reading, 9–10, 145, 249, 343
- see also linguistic landscapes
- informal writing, 75–82, 146–147, 385–388
- information communications technology (ITC) see language learning technology
- integrative learning, 171
- intelligent personal assistants (IPAs), 464, 465
- intentional learning, 10, 405, 412–413
- interaction hypothesis, 198
- intensive reading, 395
- International English Language Testing System (IELTS), 20
- internet access, 226, 274, 459
- see also cybercafés
- internet searches
- internet usage, global, 6, 92, 109, 313, 322
- intralingual teaching, 441, 442
- Ioannides, Dimitri, 234
- Ireland, 232, 233, 265
- iTranslate, 446, 447, 448–450
- James, William, 25
- Janta, Hania, 235, 237
- Japanese anime, 210, 219, 329, 460
- Japanese language, 141, 142, 278, 458
- Japanese pop culture, 210, 219, 329
- see also Japanese anime
- Jarmon, Leslie, 90
- Jarvis, Huw A., 155
- Jee, Min Jung, 158, 159
- Jenkins, Henry, 173
- Jeon, Eun‐Young, 400
- Jewitt, Carey, 156
- Jiang, Feng, 78
- Jin, Li, 446
- Johns, Ann M., 75
- Jonsson, Carla, 356–357
- Jordan, refugee camps in, 19, 20
- Jung, H., 293
- Kachru, Braj B., 244, 290
- Källkvist, Marie, 320
- Kano, Mikimi, 398
- Karim, Khaled, 427
- Kaufman, Steve, 451
- Kentucky, Latinx community in, 359
- Kessler, Greg, 233
- Kevin, Dela Rosa, 41
- Khazaie, Saeed, 41
- Khodabakhshzadeh, Hossein, 155
- Kim, Eun‐Young, 423
- Kim, Heyoung, 423
- Kim, Tae‐Young, 293
- Kim, Youjin, 64
- Kim, Youngmi, 293
- kindergartens, 27, 62, 65, 209, 333, 354
- Kindle see Amazon Kindle
- Kinginger, Celeste, 261
- Klein, Wolfgang, 263, 265–266
- Kontras, Adam, 157
- Koolstra, Cees M., 186
- Korczynski, Marek, 231
- Korea, Republic of, 8, 289–298
- College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT), 291, 292, 298
- cultural values, 290, 292
- education system, 291–293, 298
- EFL study, 289–298
- Gireogi gajok programs, 291
- hagwon schools, 291, 292
- history, 290–291
- informal digital learning, 293–298
- linguistic homogeneity, 290
- popular music, 289, 329
- private education, 291
- statistical publications, 291–292
- universities, 292
- US military presence, 290
- Korea Herald, 291
- Korean language, 65, 66, 219, 289, 329, 361–362
- bilingualism, 358
- Korobkova, Ksenia A., 148, 149
- Kothari, Brij, 192
- K‐pop music, 289, 329
- Krashen, Stephen D., 2, 64, 263, 408
- Krebs, Emil, 33
- Kress, Gunther, 42–43, 44, 52, 155
- Kukulska‐Hulme, Agnes, 70, 120, 171, 176, 225, 373
- Kuppens, An, 186, 188
- Kurek, Malgozata, 390
- Kusyk, Meryl, 186–187, 335, 477
- L1 learners see first language acquisition
- L2 learners see second language acquisition
- L2 Motivational Self System, 16–17
- L3 learners, 30, 327, 367
- Lacelle, Nathalie, 156
- Lai, Chun, 18, 277
- Laird, Lynda, 210
- Lam, Wan Shun E., 79, 141, 223–224, 225, 388
- Lambert, Wallace E., 15, 474
- Lammers, Jayne C., 146
- Lamy, Marie‐Noelle, 360, 371, 375, 376
- Landry, Rodrigue, 244–245, 247, 250
- language, as human expression, 40, 44–47, 58
- language awareness, 244, 247, 249–253
- language brokering, 358, 361
- language capital, 229
- language development, 409, 417, 459–460, 471, 479
- additional see second language acquisition
- bilingual, 15–16, 58–61, 357–358
- and feedback see feedback, learning
- first language, 62–63
- see also first language acquisition
- and gameplay, 105–106, 461
- and movies, 343
- processes see language learning, process of
- research case studies, 341–347
- second language, 387–388
- in the wild, 457–458
- see also linguistic development
- language learning, process of, 1–3, 5, 11, 19, 27
- accuracy development, 345–346
- appropriate level, 413
- and awareness, 244, 247, 249, 252–253
- via apps see language learning apps
- cognition see cognitive processes in language learning
- environmental constraints, 6, 19, 58, 61, 62
- fluency, 346
- grammar see grammar acquisition
- interaction, 109, 113, 386–387
- locus of learning, 22–23
- making errors, 27–28, 30, 34, 60–61, 64
- see also error correction
- motivation see motivation, for language learning
- multimodal learning see multimodal learning
- music see music, language learning through
- nonformal, 204, 244, 248
- social networking see social networking
- strategies, 30, 425
- trajectory, 23–24
- vocabulary see vocabulary acquisition
- see also informal language learning; language development; pronunciation; punctuation
- language learning apps, 6, 10, 110–111, 121–122, 219, 222
- language learning social networking sites see LLSNS
- language learning technology, 68–70, 117–119, 411–415
- apps see language learning apps
- and feedback, 69
- mobile devices see mobile devices, as learning platforms
- quality of, 313
- social networking sites see LLSNS
- see also digital learning contexts; machine‐assisted translation; Web 2.0
- Language Learning and Technology journal, 373
- language resource centers, 335, 340–341
- language tourism, 8, 257–268
- Laufer, Batia, 207, 423
- Lave, Jean, 218
- Lavi‐Rotbain, Ori, 33
- Law, Meei‐Ling, 375–376
- Leadbetter, Charles, 155
- Leander, Kevin M., 219–220
- learner autonomy, 131, 133, 426, 474, 476–477
- characteristics, 425–426
- and language learning see autonomous language learning
- and metacognitive awareness, 422
- and motivation, 422, 425
- see also Self‐determination Theory
- learner‐directed play, 102–105
- learning contexts, 15, 57–71
- digital see digital learning contexts
- LeClere, Felicia B., 231
- Lee, Carmen, 153, 155, 156, 158, 159
- Lee, Chaehyun, 361–362
- Lee, Helen, 4, 175
- Lee, Jin Sook, 219
- Lee, Ju Seong, 294, 295, 298
- Lee, Kilryoung, 294
- legitimate peripheral participation, 79, 218
- Leiva, Camila, 351
- Leki, Ilona, 75–76
- Lenneberg, Eric, The Biological Foundations of Language, 28
- Lenters, Kimberley, 249
- Lepper, Mark R., 129, 130
- Lev‐Ari, Sheri, 32
- Levy, Mark R., 197–198
- Lewis, Benny, 210–211
- Lewis, Gwyn, 351
- lexical sophistication, 342–343, 344–345, 460
- Li, Guofang, 145, 358
- Liao, Pei‐An, 459
- Lin, Angel M.Y., 353, 355–356
- Lin, Chin‐Hsi, 385, 387
- Lindgren, Eva, 185
- LingroToGo, 111
- linguistic development see language development
- linguistic environment, 7–8, 62, 63, 68
- linguistic landscapes, 243–254
- advertisements, 250
- educational perspectives, 245–247
- and language awareness, 247–249
- language mixing, 252–253
- as learning resource, 243, 246–249
- loanwords, 250–251
- see also linguistic environment; multilingualism
- linguistic registers, 65, 66
- linguistic superdiversity, 458
- Lising, Loy, 231
- listening comprehension, 184, 220, 400, 414–415
- literacy, 6, 43, 63
- digital see digital literacy
- reading rate, 339, 343, 396, 397, 398–399
- see also reading; written language
- Little, David, 426
- Littlewood, William, 274–275, 276
- Liu, Cixin, The Three Body Problem, 329
- Liu, Min, 127, 462
- Liu, Ngar Fun, 276
- LiveMocha, 121, 377, 387, 462
- Livingstone, D.W., 323, 421
- LLSNS, 9, 17–18, 219, 373, 377, 423
- LMOOCs see massive open online courses (MOOCs)
- locus of control, 22–23, 275, 280–281, 323
- logocentrism, 44, 47, 50
- Lomicka, Lara, 374
- London, UK, 234, 235–236, 238, 359
- LonelyGirl15 vlog, 157
- Long, Michael H., 29
- longitudinal studies, 17, 144, 185, 293, 335
- Lord, Gillian, 126, 374
- Lucasfilm, 90
- Lugosi, Peter, 231, 237
- Luna, R.M., 41
- Lyon, Andrew, 236
- Lyrigkou, Christina, 188
- Ma, Qing, 276, 278
- Macaro, Ernesto, 427
- MacDonald, Maryellen C., 33
- machine‐assisted translation, 443–445, 453
- neural, 445
- rules‐based, 444
- potential of, 447–448
- statistical, 444–445
- see also translation apps
- MacIntyre, Peter D., 262
- Mackey, Alison, 69
- MacSwan, Jeff, 353–354
- Mahadi, Tengu S.T., 446
- Mahar, Donna, 145
- Main Source, The (Robinson and Levy), 197–198
- Makalela, Leketi, 357
- Malcolm, Janice, 244
- Malmkjaer, Kirsten, 442
- Malone, Thomas W., 129
- Manchón, Rosa, 43
- Mandarin Chinese, 65, 148, 169, 273–274, 459
- Mann, Sarah J., 425
- Mariotti, Cristina, 184
- Marsick, Victoria J., 230, 405–406
- Martin‐Monje, Elena, 424
- Martin‐Beltran, Melinda, 355
- Martinelli, Micol, 124
- Martínez, Ramón Antonio, 355
- Marxism, 50
- massive open online courses (MOOCs), 424, 462
- Matsuda, Paul Kei, 82
- Maturana, Humberto R., 352
- Mayer, Richard E., 224
- McBride, Kara, 374, 375
- McCarthy, Tanya M., 208, 209
- McConnell, Eileen Diaz, 231
- McDowell, Linda, 234, 235–236
- McGivney, Veronica, 478
- McKerrecher, Jude, 169
- McLean, Stuart, 399
- McQueen, James M., 186, 190, 191, 197
- Meeder, Brendan, 129
- Melchor‐Couto, Sabela, 91
- memes, 40, 48
- Memrise, 121, 122, 123, 126
- Mentira, 459
- Merriam, Sharan, 171
- metacognition, 10, 297, 407, 425, 467
- metalinguistic awareness, 29–30, 32
- Metin, Esen, 208
- Mexico, 246, 359
- Microsoft Translator, 445, 447
- Middle East Broadcasting Center, Dubai, 310
- migrant workers, 231, 232–233
- migration, 3, 218, 229–230, 457–458
- drivers for, 229
- educational, 218, 229
- labor, 231
- see also migrant workers
- and language learning see immigrant language learning
- refugees see refugees
- temporary, 229
- see also transnationalism
- Miller, Paul, 155
- Miller‐Cochran, Susan, 43
- Mills, Nicole, 374
- Milton, James, 207
- Mitchell, Rosamond, 262–263
- Mitterer, Holger, 186, 190, 191, 197
- M‐learning, 119, 155
- MMOhuts, 90
- MMORPGs, 87, 88, 90, 95, 385
- mobile‐assisted language learning (MALL), 70, 119–121, 155, 221–223
- mobile‐assisted language use (MALU), 155
- mobile devices, as learning platforms, 119–120, 169–178, 279, 314
- Amazon Kindle, 414
- and authentic language, 208, 279
- and autonomous language learning, 422
- collaboration, 169, 170–174, 175–178
- content creation, 173, 176, 389
- drawbacks, 423
- and experiential learning, 459
- formal language learners, 314–315, 450, 451
- immigrants, 171, 218
- for online access, 276
- operating software, 120
- personal digital assistants, 119–120
- personalization, 279
- smartphones see smartphones
- vocabulary acquisition, 41
- wearable, 464–465
- and Web 2.0, 158
- see also mobile‐assisted language learning; mobile learning theory
- mobile learning theory, 216
- mobile social learning, 373
- Montrul, Silvina, 66
- Moran, Chris, 395, 402
- Moreno, Roxana, 191, 224
- Morningstar, Randall, 90
- Morocco, Kingdom of, 8, 303–315
- morphology, 27–28, 64
- motivation, for language learning, 15–25, 70, 234–235, 478
- movies, as learning platform, 2, 3, 19, 333–334, 343
- dubbing, 333–334
- subtitles see subtitles, use of
- see also video captions
- multilingualism, 253, 303–304, 353
- digital writing, 383–390
- see also bilingualism; translanguaging
- multimedia learning, 118, 119, 205, 224–226, 390
- multimodal codemeshing, 356, 357
- multimodal learning, 5, 39–53, 156, 160
- multinational companies, 231, 239
- multiplicity, concept of, 216
- see also multimodal learning
- Multi‐User Dungeons (MUDs), 90
- Munday, Pilar, 111
- Mundt, Klaus, 447
- Muñoz, Carmen, 185
- music, 204–205, 210
- music, language learning through, 203–211, 336
- Musser, John, 372
- Nah, Ki Chune, 173
- Nanako, Tanako, 107, 112, 145, 148, 149
- Nation, I.S. Paul, 401, 412
- native speakers, 57, 63, 187, 197, 462
- as teachers, 24, 63, 274, 282, 290
- see also first language acquisition; heritage languages
- Netherlands, The, 186, 190, 479
- Netton, Joan, 130
- Newgarden, Kristi, 387, 388
- New London Group, 42, 52
- Newport, Elissa L., 32
- Nicholas, Howard, 244, 250
- Nielson, Katharine B., 126
- nonformal learning, 244, 248, 310, 462
- definitions, 204, 422, 472
- see also massive open online courses (MOOCs)
- nonverbal communication, 235, 238
- Nordic countries, language acquisition in, 319, 460, 479
- Norris, B., 264
- Norton, Bonny, 17
- Norway, 190–191
- Norwegian Refugee Council Youth Center, 19
- Nuñez, Idalia, 359–360
- Nuttall, Christine, 395
- Obama, Barak, 291, 329
- OECD, 154, 291, 292
- Ogiermann, Eva, 236
- Oh, Janet Sae, 65
- Oldenburg, Ray, The Great Good Place, 92, 93–95
- Olsson, Eva, 326
- O’Mara, Ben, 218, 220, 221
- online debating, 141, 156–157
- online informal learning of English (OILE), 339–347, 408, 427, 472, 475
- online learning communities, 21, 25, 127, 389, 427–429, 462
- Open Agenda, 378
- Open Educational Resources (OER), 378
- oral comprehension skills, 126, 335
- O’Reilly, Tim, 369, 371, 372, 378
- Orellana, Marjorie F., 358
- Orlando, Florida, 233, 237, 238
- Oskoz, Ana, 388
- out‐of‐classroom language learning (OCLL), 284, 376, 473
- see also autonomous language learning
- overdetermination, 50–51
- Oxford, Rebecca L., 425
- Özad, Bahire Efe, 446, 450
- Pachler, Norbert, 120, 177
- Paivio, Allan, dual‐coding hypothesis, 191, 413
- Palmer, Deborah K., 354, 355
- Palmer, Harold, 395
- Paradowsky, Michal B., 34
- Paribakht, Tahereh Sima, 187
- Paveau, Marie‐Anne, 161
- Pawlak, Miroslaw, 421
- PCMag online, 121
- Peace Corps Volunteers, 303, 311
- Peasgood, Alice, 218, 221, 222–223
- pedagogy, language‐learning, 21–22, 177, 246–247, 297, 323
- Peeters, Ward, 386
- Pegrum, Mark, 373
- Peirce, Charles Sanders, 5–6, 44, 51
- Pemberton, Lyn, 204
- Pena, Maria I., 446, 450
- Pennycook, Alistair, 245
- Perdue, Clive, 263, 265–266
- Perez, Montero, 192
- Perrot, Laurent, 476
- Peru, 237
- Peters, Elke, 186
- Petersen, Sobah Abbas, 174
- Pew Research Center, 153
- Phillips, Beth M., 218
- phonology, 29, 32, 62, 65, 191, 354
- Pica, Teresa, 64
- Pill, Thomas J.H., 276, 277
- Piller, Ingrid, 231
- Pinterest, 390
- playing games, 101, 102, 104–112
- spaces, 102–103
- see also digital gaming; video games
- podcasts, 184, 427, 432
- Polat, Brittany, 64
- Polish culture, 235–236, 359
- politeness, 235–236
- polyglots, 33, 210–211, 430, 431
- Premji, Stéphanie, 238
- Prensky, Marc, 129
- preschool see kindergarten
- Programme for International Student Assessment and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study tests, 291
- pronunciation, 162, 222
- Puck, Jonas, 239
- Puerto Rican bilingualism, 358
- punctuation, 21
- Purpura, James E., 411
- Purushotma, Ravi, 106
- Pym, Anthony, 442
- Qu, Weiguo, 43
- Quadros, Sabrina D.M., 218, 220
- qualifications, language‐learning, 11, 19–20
- qualitative research methods, 173, 266
- anecdotal, 315
- case studies, 141, 144–145, 249–253, 275, 311–315
- conversational analysis, 457
- critical appraisal, 370
- ethnographic see ethnographic studies
- interviews, 173, 275, 306, 309, 316, 320, 337nn13, 14, 341
- journals, 402
- narrative inquiry, 19, 275, 280, 282, 296, 310
- and quantitative analysis, 309–310, 342–345
- questionnaires, 95–96, 173, 184–185, 208, 335–338, 402
- retrodictive studies, 483
- quantitative research methods, 15, 31, 42, 265–266, 295, 402
- Quest Atlantis, 107
- Rama, Paul S., 385
- Ransdell, Sarah, 29
- Razfar, Aria, 217, 224, 225
- Read, Timothy, 373
- Readlang translator, 447
- reading, 395
- extensive see extensive reading
- informal see informal reading
- for pleasure, 79, 357, 399, 400
- rates see reading rates
- see also literacy
- reading rates, 339, 343, 396, 397, 398–399
- reciprocal indexicality, 48–50
- recreational language learning, 204, 310, 459–461
- refugees, 18, 218, 220, 457–458
- Reichenberg, Monica, 219
- Reinders, Hayo, 18, 376, 473, 477
- Reinhardt, Jonathon, 103, 104, 106, 373, 374, 378
- bridging activities framework, 388–389
- research methods
- internet searches, 121, 123
- longitudinal studies see longitudinal studies
- qualitiative see qualitative research methods
- quantitative see quantitative research methods
- Rheingold, Howard, 98
- Richards, Jack C., 230, 276, 427
- Richardson, Diane F., 374, 375
- Ritchie, Brent W., 258
- Ritterfield, Ute, 42
- Robb, Thomas, 398
- Robinson, John P., 197–198
- Rockman Et Al (REA), 126
- Rodgers, Michael, 187, 192
- Rodriguez‐Galindo, Alejandra, 359
- role play, 62, 143
- Romeo, Kenneth, 410, 411
- Roos, Jana, 244, 250
- Rosario‐Ramos, Enid, 223, 225
- Rosell‐Aguilar, Fernando, 109–110
- Rosetta Stone, 4, 121, 125–126, 423
- Ros i Solé, Christina, 173
- Rouault, Greg, 399
- Ryan, Richard M., 477
- Ryu, Dongwan, 70, 108
- Sadler, Randall William, 87, 93
- Sáez‐López, José Manuel, 373
- Salomon, Gavriel, 188, 189
- Santos, Victor D.O., 126
- Saricoban, Arif, 208
- Sarroub, Loukia K., 218, 220
- Saudi Arabia, 175
- Sauro, Shannon, 409, 460, 461
- Saussure, Ferdinand de, 352
- savants, 33–34
- Sayer, Peter, 246, 247, 355, 362
- Scanlon, Eileen, 216
- Scarvaglieri, Claudio, 249
- Schugurensky, Daniel, 474
- Scollon, Ron, 245
- Scollon, Suzie Wong, 245
- search engines, 121, 172, 432
- second language acquisition (SLA), 29–32, 58–61, 63–65, 325
- age, 29, 58, 59
- and anxiety, 33, 68, 91, 261, 334, 385
- compared with L1 acquisition, 31–33, 58–60, 63, 396
- explicit/implicit, 30–31
- formal writing, 75–76
- grammatical errors, 60–61
- heritage see heritage language acquisition
- linguistic environments, 29–30, 58–59, 63–64, 68
- metalinguistic awareness, 29–30, 32
- and mobile devices see mobile devices, as learning platforms
- motivation, 68
- parental influence, 185, 218
- research studies, 43, 64, 259, 265–266, 413, 477
- strategies see communication strategies
- untutored, 64
- Second Life, 88, 89, 89, 90, 91, 94, 95–97
- Seidenberg, Mark, 396–397
- self‐access language learning centers, 275, 310, 401, 427, 484
- Self‐determination Theory, 192, 425, 476–477
- self‐directed learning, 171, 172, 173, 223, 282–283, 422–423
- see also autonomous language learning; learner autonomy
- self‐initiated learning, 217–220
- see also self‐directed learning
- Selwyn, Neil, 372
- semiotics, 42–48, 50
- Sensors and Apps for Languages in Smart Areas (SALSA), 222
- Settles, Burr, 129
- Shapiro, Jordan, 106
- Sharples, Mike, 378
- Sherlock Holmes fandom, 140, 143
- Sherlock TV series, 141–142
- Shield, Lesley, 70
- Shin, Gi‐Wook, 291
- Shin, Jeong‐Ah, 30, 31, 31, 33
- Shohany, Elana, 245
- SimilarWeb estimator tool, 121, 123
- Sims video game, 106, 146, 328
- situated learning, 218
- Skehan, Peter, 265
- Skype conferencing, 175, 386
- smartphones, 110, 120, 175, 226, 274, 325
- apps, 221, 222, 224, 451
- see also language learning apps
- apps, 221, 222, 224, 451
- Smith, Blaine, 356
- Smith, J.V., 264
- Snyder, Bill, 374
- social capital, importance of, 219
- social constructivism, 113
- socialization, 61, 88, 262, 385
- social network analysis, 32
- social media, 230–231, 369–379
- social networking, 156, 369–372, 378
- in formal education settings, 373–376
- immigrant, 220
- language learning sites see LLSNS
- technology, 171, 175, 218, 312
- tourists, 261
- see also learning communities; social media
- social networking sites for language learning (SNSLL) see LLSNS
- social pedagogies framework, 376
- social semiotic theory, 42–44, 50
- see also semiotics
- sociocultural perspectives, 218–219
- Sockett, Geoffrey, 4, 79, 204, 205, 210, 463, 477
- Something Like Home documentary, 18, 19, 20
- Son, Jeong‐Bae, 155
- Song, Kwangok, 358
- songs, role in learning, 7, 41, 203–211, 276, 309–310, 313
- South Africa, 263–264, 357
- spaced‐repetition approach, 126
- Spanish language, 22, 67, 303, 328
- Spanish‐speaking learners, 18–19, 20, 21–22, 66
- speech recognition, 464
- Spicher, Lori, 211
- Splash! (Walt Disney, 1984), 183
- Squire, Kurt, 107
- StarCraft online game, 296
- statistical learning, 28, 29–30, 396
- Statistics Sweden, 322
- Steinkuehler, Constance, 92
- Stephenson, Neal, Snow Crash, 87
- Stevenson, Megan P., 127
- Stockwell, Glenn, 155
- Strasbourg, France, 186
- structural priming, 30–31, 33
- Subtitles and Language Learning project, 185
- subtitles, use of, 7, 49, 184–185, 310, 412, 413
- Suits TV series, 480
- Suk, Namhee, 399
- Sulcova, Dana, 236
- Sundqvist, Pia, 102, 104, 405
- Swain, Merrill, 146
- Sweden, 319, 321, 330, 458
- Swedish language, 319–320
- immigrant learners, 446
- Swedish Language Act (2009), 320
- Swedish Media Council, 322
- Sweeney, Frances, 211
- Sykes, Julie M., 103, 104, 106, 373, 458, 464, 465
- Sylvan, Claire E., 360
- Sylvén, Liss Kirsten, 70, 102, 104, 329–330, 405
- synchronous computer mediated communication (SCMC), 69
- tacit learning, 171
- Taipei City, Taiwan, 389, 458
- Tammet, Daniel, 33–34
- Tanaka, Koichi, 261
- tandem learning, 426
- Tarone, Elaine, 232, 240
- task‐based language teaching (TBLT), 47, 69
- Taylor, Alan, 398
- teacher support for informal learning, 248, 389, 408–409
- teaching of English to speakers of other languages see TESOL perspective
- Teske, Kaitlin, 124, 125
- TESOL perspective, 442, 464, 473, 479–480
- Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), 20, 309
- Tex‐Mex blended language, 355
- Theodórsdóttir, Guðrún, 457
- Thiessen, Erik D., 33
- Tholin, Jörgen, 327
- Thorne, Steven L., 103, 104, 376, 377, 463
- Tikaki, Misako, 399
- Toffoli, Denyze, 4, 79, 476, 477
- Torres, Julio R., 67
- transcripts, 48–49, 124, 187, 413, 414
- transfronterizo children, 359, 360–361
- translanguaging, 9, 351–364
- translation, role in language learning, 442–443
- translation apps, 10, 445–447
- translation technology, 443–453
- see also machine‐assisted translation; translation apps
- transnationalism, 79, 216–217, 223–224, 225, 291
- Traxler, John, 120
- Trenkic, Dankjela, 191, 192
- Trubshaw, Roy, 90
- TV programs, as learning platforms, 183, 185–189, 328, 339–340, 460
- genres, 189–190
- see also individual TV series
- Twitter, 143, 423
- Ugonna, Nwannediuto C., 126
- UNESCO, 148, 154
- United Kingdom (UK) service sector, 234, 235
- United States, 11, 19, 92–93, 193, 312, 358
- universal grammar, concept of, 28, 29
- University of Bielefeld C‐test, 195
- University of Iowa, 193
- University of Oregon, 111
- University of Oxford Language Centre, 195
- Ushioda, Ema, 15, 425
- Valle del Bluegrass Library, Kentucky, 359
- Vanderplank, Robert, 463, 473–474
- Vandommele, Goedele, 385
- Van Leeuwen, Theo, 44
- Varela, Francisco J., 352
- Velasco, Patricia, 356
- verbs, use of, 22, 30, 31
- Vesselinov, Roumen, 124, 126
- Viberg, Åke, 326
- Viberg, Olga, 171
- video blogs, 7, 153–167, 431–432
- video captions, 41–42, 190–192, 196, 412
- video gaming, as learning platform, 41–42, 70, 101–113, 142, 423
- video learning, 184–198, 215, 342–343, 423–424
- Italia 2000 materials, 184
- technology development, 188–189
- use of captions see video captions
- see also educational broadcasts
- Vietnam, student teachers study, 206, 208, 209
- virtual reality (VR), 98, 464
- and learning see virtual worlds, as learning environments
- virtual worlds, as learning environments, 34, 87–97, 423
- vloggers, 153, 158, 159, 160–163, 165
- vlogging, 155–160, 166
- informal language learning, 159–166
- see also video blogs; YouTube
- vocabulary acquisition, 337, 342–343, 397, 399–400, 414
- Vocabulary Knowledge scale, 187
- voice communication, 94, 97, 386, 388
- Volk, Dinah, 358
- Volpe, Marie, 406
- Vulchanova, Mila, 189
- Vygotsky, Lev, 49, 92, 94, 108
- Waksman, Shoshi, 245
- Waring, Robert, 399, 412
- Warner, Chantelle, 374, 375, 461, 463
- Warshauer, Mark, 43
- Watkins, Karen E., 405–406
- Web 2.0, 154–156, 369, 371
- Webb, Stuart, 183, 186, 187
- Wei, Li, 352–353, 364
- Wenden, Anita L., 425
- Wenger, Etienne, 218
- Wesche, Marjorie, 187
- White, Lydia, Universal Grammar and Second Language, 28
- Wickham, James, 232
- Wikipedia, 220, 309
- Willems, Gérard M., 232
- Williams, Cen, 351
- Williams, Dmitri, 92
- Williams, Eddie, 395, 402
- Winke, Paula, 42
- Wong, L.H., 175
- workplace learning, 126, 265, 477, 478–479, 482
- World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 258, 264
- World of Warcraft, 88, 107, 108, 385, 387, 461
- Worthy, Jo, 359
- written language, 77, 43–44, 344–345
- informal see informal writing
- Wu, Man‐fat, 276–277, 284
- Yang, Charles, 29
- Yang, Eunah, 217, 224, 225
- Yap, Set‐lee, 276, 277, 278, 279
- Ye, Feifei, 124
- Yi, Youngjoo, 43, 78
- Yibokou, Kossi S., 482
- Young and Beautiful (Lana Del Rey), 209
- YouTube, 49, 153, 154, 157–158
- YouTube Creator Studio, 163, 164
- Yvon, François, 450
- Yung, Kevin W.‐H., 282
- Yupik language, 460
- Zamoon, Sarah Rose, 193–194
- Zampoukos, Kristina, 234
- Zaragoza, E.Desirée Castello, 425
- Zarei, Gholam Raza, 41
- Zhang, Lawrence Jun, 424
- Zhao, Xuan, 377
- Zhao, Yuting, 218
- Zheng, Dongping, 173, 279, 387, 388, 450, 451
- Zimmerman, Barry J., 408–409
- zones of proximal development (Vygotsky), 49, 92, 94, 108
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