Notes

Chapter 1

1. Henry Mintzberg, “Time for the Plural Sector,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 13, no. 3 (2015): 28–33.

2. Frederick Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management (Harper & Bro., 1911). “Now, among the various methods and implements used in each element of each trade there is always one method and one implement which is quicker and better than any of the rest. And, this one best method and best implement can only be discovered and developed through a scientific study and analysis of all the methods and implements in use, together with accurate, minute, motion and time study” (p. 25).

3. Published in the mid-1950s in an American professor’s bulletin, a Canadian military journal, and Harper’s magazine, probably based on an anonymous memorandum that circulated in London that was published originally in Her Majesty’s Treasury of the Courts.

4. Regina E. Herzlingler, “Why Innovation in Health Care Is So Hard,” Harvard Business Review 84, no. 5 (2006): 58–66.

5. North America, not America, because the sport was invented at my own university, McGill, in Canada. Marc Montgomery, “May 14, 1874. How Canada Created American Football,” Radio Canada International, May 4, 2015.

6. “Flying Funeral Directors of America,” in The Encyclopaedia of Associations, Gale Directory Library, 1979.

7. Henry Mintzberg, Structure in Fives: Designing Effective Organizations (Prentice-Hall, 1983); Henry Mintzberg, The Structuring of Organizations: A Synthesis of the Research (Prentice Hall, 1979).

8. Jean Chevalier and Alain Gheenbrant, Dictionnaire des Symboles (Éditions Robert Laffont/JUPITER, 1982).

9. George A. Miller, “The Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information,” Psychological Review 63 (1956): 81–97.

10. Mintzberg, Structuring of Organizations; Henry Mintzberg, Bruce Ahlstrand, and Joe Lampel, Strategy Safari: A Guided Tour through the Wilds of Strategic Management (Free Press and Prentice-Hall, 2009); Henry Mintzberg, Simply Managing (Berrett-Koehler, 2013); and Henry Mintzberg, Rebalancing Society: Radical Renewal beyond Left, Right, and Center (Berrett-Koehler, 2015).

Chapter 2

11. The company asked not to be named because its promotion had changed. The ad was prepared by Anderson & Lembke, New York.

12. Peter Schein and Edgar H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (Wiley & Sons, 1991; first edition by Edgar Schein, 1985).

13. Board directors who seek to exercise direct control over the CEO could be considered insiders, while those who act more at arm’s length are influencers. If, however, the directors offer advice to the management or raise funds for the organization, they also act like support staff. On stakeholders, see R. Edward Freeman et al., Stakeholder Theory: The State of the Art (Cambridge University Press, 2010).

14. Henry Mintzberg, Power In and Around Organizations (Prentice Hall, 1983).

15. Michael E. Porter, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance (Free Press, 1985).

16. In correspondence from June 8, 2017, Mark Hammer “distinguish[ed] centripetal and centrifugal organizations.” The former, like police forces, tend to gather information but then keep it to themselves, whereas the latter, such as universities, tend to gather information and then distribute it widely.

17. Lise Lamothe, “Le reconfiguration des hôpitaux: Un défi d’ordre professionnel,” Ruptures: Revue transdisciplinaire en santé 6, no. 2 (1999): 132–148.

18. Various examples can be found in Henry Mintzberg and Ludo Van der Heyden, “Organigraphs: Drawing How Companies Really Work,” Harvard Business Review (September–October 1999): 87–94; Henry Mintzberg and Ludo Van der Heyden, “Taking a Closer Look. Reviewing the Organization. Is It a Chain, a Hub or a Web?” Ivey Business Journal (2000).

19. Sally Helgesen, The Female Advantage: Women’s Ways of Leadership (Doubleday, 1990), 45–46.

20. Walter Isaacson, Steve Jobs: The Exclusive Biography (Little, Brown, 2011).

21. Terry Connolly “On Taking Action Seriously,” in G. N. Undon and D. N. Brunstein eds., Decision-Making: An Interdisciplinary Inquiry (Kent, 1982): 45

Chapter 3

22. Much of this section is discussed, with extensive examples, in Henry Mintzberg, Tracking Strategies: Toward a General Theory (Oxford University Press, 2007).

23. Michael Porter, Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors (Free Press, 1980); and Peter F. Drucker, The Practice of Management (Harper & Row, 1954).

24. Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management (Paris Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 1916).

25. What follows is discussed at length, with detailed examples from twenty-nine days in the lives of all kinds of managers, in my books Managing (Berrett-Koehler and Pearson, 2009) and, more briefly, Simply Managing (Berrett-Koehler, 2013).

26. Michael Porter, “The State of Strategic Thinking,” The Economist, May 23, 1987, 2.

27. Warren G. Bennis, On Becoming a Leader (Basic Books, 2009); and Abraham Zaleznik, “Managers and Leaders: Are They Different?” Harvard Business Review (January 2004): 74–81.

28. Herbert Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial (MIT Press, 1969).

29. For example, Henry Mintzberg, The Nature of Managerial Work (HarperCollins, 1973).

30. See Mintzberg, Simply Managing, Chapter 5 for an elaboration of these other conundrums.

31. Ann Langley, “Between ‘Paralysis by Analysis’ and ‘Extention by Instinct’” Sloan Management Review (Spring 1995).

Chapter 4

32. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Harvard Belknap Press, 1975), 141.

33. Lars Groth, Future Organizational Design: The Scope for the IT-based Enterprise (John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 30.

34. Quoted in Anthony Jay, Management and Machiavelli (Bantam Books, 1967), 70.

35. Nizet and Pichault suggested the word “values” “to make it more understandable to . . . technically-oriented people” (in personal correspondence). See also Jean Nizet and Francois Pichault, Introduction à la théorie des configuations : Du « one best way » à la diversité organisationnelle (De Boeck Supérieur, 2001).

36. This text is adapted from Joseph Lampel and Henry Mintzberg, “Customizing Customization,” Sloan Management Review (1996): 21–30.

37. Henri Fayol, “Administration industrielle et générale,” Bulletin de la Société de l’Industrie Minérale 10 (1916); then Luther Gulick and L. Urwick, eds., Papers on the Science of Administration (Institute of Public Administration, 1937).

38. Richard Pascale and Anthony Athos, The Art of Japanese Management (Viking, 1982).

Chapter 5

39. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (1776; J.M. Dent & E.P. Dutton, 1910), 5.

40. Lyndall Urwick, “Public Administration and Scientific Management,” Indian Journal of Public Administration 2, no. 1 (1956): 41. See also Lyndall Urwick and Luther Gulick, “Notes on the Theory of Organization,” in Gulick and Urwick, Papers on the Science of Administration.

41. Alfred Sloan, My Years with General Motors (Doubleday & Co., 1963).

42. See Jay Galbraith, Designing Complex Organizations (Addison Wesley, 1973), for an excellent discussion of these linkages and an illustration of this continuum.

Chapter 6

43. Mintzberg, Structuring of Organizations, 215–297.

44. Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Labor (Monthly Review Press, 1974), 87.

45. In a 1989 article Fortune magazine wrote: “What’s truly amazing about P&G’s historic restructuring is that it is a response to the consumer market, not the stock market.” What’s truly amazing about this statement is Fortune’s use of the phrase “truly amazing.”

Chapter 7

46. Isaacson, Steve Jobs, 408.

47. Isaacson, Steve Jobs, 565. Picture founding CEO Steve Jobs spending his mornings in an Apple laboratory designing product: “He loves coming in here because it’s calm and gentle. It’s a paradise if you’re a visual person. There are no formal design reviews, so there are no huge decision points. Instead, we can make the decisions fluid. Since we iterate every day and never have dumb-ass presentations, we don’t run into major disagreements.” Isaacson, Steve Jobs, 346.

48. Isaacson, Steve Jobs, 454.

49. Orvis Collins and David Moore, The Enterprising Man (Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Michigan State University, 1964).

Chapter 8

50. The chapter epigraph is from Thomas A. Murphy, interviewed in Executive magazine, Cornell Graduate School of Business and Public Administration, Summer 1980.

51. Yuval Noah Hariri, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (Random House, 2015), 45.

52. Richard L. A. Sterba, “The Organization and Management of the Temple Corporations in Ancient Mesopotamia,” Academy of Management Review 1 no. 3 (July 1976): 25.

53. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel about What They Do (Pantheon, 1974).

54. Porter, Competitive Strategy.

55. “What is the dog there for,” Future Airline Pilot, January 3, 2013, http://futureairlinepilot.blogspot.com/2013/01/what-is-dog-there-for.html.

56. James C. Worthy, Big Business and Free Men (Harper & Bros., 1959).

57. Max Weber, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, edited by Hans Gerth and C. Wright Mills (Oxford University Press, 1958), 214.

58. Pedro Monteiro and Paul S. Adler, “Bureaucracy for the Twenty-First Century: Clarifying and Expanding Our View of Bureaucratic Organization,” Academy of Management Annals, 2022, vol. 16, no. 2, 11–12, 16.

59. Michel Crozier, The Bureaucratic Phenomenon: An Examination of Bureaucracy in Modern Organizations and Its Cultural Setting in France (University of Chicago Press, 1964).

60. Worthy, Big Business and Free Men, 79, 70.

61. Terkel, Working, 282.

62. Crozier, Bureaucratic Phenomenon, 51.

63. J. C. Spender, Industry Recipes (Basil Blackwell, 1989).

64. The box derives from my book The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning.

65. Simon Johnson, “Flat-pack Pioneer Kamprad Built Sweden’s IKEA into Global Brand,” Reuters, January 28, 2018.

Chapter 9

66. F. C. Spencer, “Deductive Reasoning in the Lifelong Continuing Education of a Cardiovascular Surgeon,” Archives of Surgery 111, no. 11 (November 1976): 1182.

67. Henry Mintzberg, Bruce Ahlstrand, and Joseph Lampel, Strategy Safari: A Guided Tour through the Wilds of Strategic Management (Prentice Hall, 1998).

68. Toscanini, quoted in Norman Lebrecht, The Maestro Myth: Great Conductors in Pursuit of Power (Simon & Schuster, 1991), chapter 4. The Orpheus Chamber Orchestra “is known for its collaborative musical style in which the musicians, not a conductor, interpret the score.” Orpheus Chamber Orchestra, https://orpheusnyc.org.

69. Henry Mintzberg, Managing the Myths of Health Care: The Separations between Care, Cure, Control, and Community (Berrett-Kohler, 2017), 52–60 and 157–162.

70. For a brilliant illustration of this third problem, see Atul Gawande, “The Health Care Bell Curve,” The New Yorker, December 6, 2004.

71. Henry Mintzberg and Susan Mintzberg, “Looking Down versus Reaching Out: The University in the 21st Century,” in progress, 2022.

72. Sholom Glouberman and Henry Mintzberg, “Managing the Care of Health and the Cure of Disease—Part I: Differentiation,” Health Care Management Review 26, no. 1 (Winter 2001): 56–69.

73. Mintzberg, Managing the Myths of Health Care, Part I.

74. For further detail, see “A Note on the Unionization of Professionals from the Perspective of Organization Theory,” Industrial Relations Law Journal (now known as Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labor Law) (1983).

Chapter 10

75. A. A. Milne, Winnie-the-Pooh (Methuen, 1926). By the way, have another look at the Milne quote. He wrote a clever little trick in there that nobody I know has ever noticed. (I discovered it by mistake, trying to recall the quote from memory.) Stuck? Look at the word one.

76. I struggled with the second label for this form, going through pioneer and prospector (Raymond E. Miles and Charles C. Snow, Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process [McGraw-Hill, 1978]) customizer and innovator (Clay Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms to Fail [Harvard Business Review Press, 1997]) before finally settling back on pioneer. But any one would have done.

77. Keidel has written extensively about sports as models of different organizations, with conclusions similar to that in this book about baseball, football, and basketball. See his Game Plans: Sports Strategies for Business (Beard Books, 1985); also see his “Teamwork, PC Style,” PC/Computing 2, no. 7 (July 1989): 126–131, and “Team Sports Models As a Generic Organizational Framework,” Human Relations 40, no. 9 (1987): 591–612.

78. In a seminar I gave to government administrators in Australia, one frustrated head of a public park, who had had enough of the pressures of the government technocrats, suggested I add a label to go along with the bureaucracies and the adhocracies. He called it hypocracy—namely, to say one thing while doing another, such as centralizing in the name of decentralization.

79. Henry Mintzberg, “Organization Design: Fashion or Fit,” Harvard Business Review (January–February 1981): 103–116.

80. Frank Martela, “What Makes Self-Managing Organizations Novel? Comparing How Weberian Bureaucracy, Mintzberg’s Adhocracy, and Self-Organizing Solve Six Fundamental Problems of Organizing,” Journal of Organizational Design 8, no. 1 (December 2019): 1–23.

81. Mintzberg, Tracking Strategies, 82–83.

82. George Huber, “Organizational Information Systems: Determinants of Their Performance and Behavior,” Management Science 28, no. 2 (February 1982) 138–155; Rolf A. Lundin and Anders Söderholm, “A Theory of the Temporary Organization,” Scandinavian Journal of Management 11, no. 4 (1995): 437–455; Charles A. O’Reilly III and Michael L. Tushman, “The Ambidextrous Organization,” Harvard Business Review (April 2004): 74–81; Terje Grønning, Working without a Boss: Lattice Organization with Direct Person-to-Person Communication at WL Gore & Associates, Inc. (SAGE Publications: SAGE Business Cases Originals, 2016); Raymond E. Miles and Charles C. Snow, “The New Network Firm: A Spherical Structure Built on a Human Investment Philosophy,” Organizational Dynamics 23, no. 4 (1995): 5–20; and James B. Quinn and Penny C. Paquette, “Technology in Services: Creating Organizational Revolutions,” MIT Sloan Management Review (Winter 1990): 67–77.

Chapter 11

83. Sterba, “Organization and Management of the Temple Corporation in Ancient Mesopotamia,” 18.

84. Monteiro and Adler recently published a major review of the bureaucratic organization, referring to its “continuing presence as the predominant organizational form.” “Bureaucracy for the 21st Century: Clarifying and Expanding Our View of Bureaucratic Organization,” Academy of Management Annals, 2022, vol. 16, no. 2, p. 427.

85. Henry Mintzberg, The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning (Free Press, 2003).

86. Henry Mintzberg and Janet Rose, “Strategic Management Upside Down: A Study of McGill University from 1829 to 1980,” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences (December 2003): 270–290.

87. Mintzberg and Rose, “Strategic Management Upside Down.”

88. Henry Mintzberg and Alexandra McHugh, “Strategy Formation in an Adhocracy,” Administrative Science Quarterly (1985); also Mintzberg, Tracking Strategies, chapter 4.

89. Mintzberg, “Managing Exceptionally,” Organization Science 12, no. 6 (December 2001): 759–771. Also discussed in Mintzberg, Managing and Simply Managing.

90. Mintzberg, Managing the Myths of Health Care, 196–197.

91. Andy Grove, High Output Management (Pan, 1985).

Chapter 13

92. I first used the term communityship in an article in the Financial Times: “Community-ship Is the Answer,” Financial Times, October 23, 2006, 8. On “collective spirit,” see Henry Mintzberg, “Rebuilding Companies as Communities,” Harvard Business Review (July–August 2009).

93. Robert R. Locke, The Collapse of the American Management Mystique (Oxford University Press, 1987), 179.

94. Philip Selznick, Leadership in Administration: A Sociological Interpretation (Harper & Row, 1957).

95. Colin Hales, “‘Bureaucracy-lite’ and Continuities in Managerial Work,” British Journal of Management 13, no. 1 (March 2002): 51.

96. Francis Macdonald Cornford, Microcosmographia Academica: Being a Guide for the Young Academic Politician (Bowes and Bowes, 1908), available online. https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/iau/cornford/cornford.html.

97. Martin Lindauer, Communication among Social Bees (Harvard University Press, 1961), 43.

98. Adapted from Mintzberg, Power In and Around Organizations, 187–217.

Chapter 14

99. James O’Toole and Warren Bennis, “Our Federalist Future: The Leadership Imperative,” Center for Effective Organizations Publications 92, no. 9 (1992). Available online.

100. R. P. Rumelt, Strategy, Structure, and Economic Performance (Harvard University Press, 1974), 21.

101. O’Toole and Bennis, “Our Federalist Future,” 79.

102. Tarun Khanna and Krishna Palepu (“Why Focused Strategies May Be Wrong for Emerging Markets,” Harvard Business Review [July–August 1997]) attribute the success of conglomerates in emerging markets to the provision by the holding company of institutional supports that are otherwise lacking in those countries. Ramachandran, Manikandan, and Pant, in contrast, attribute the success of conglomerates outside the US to the legally independent status of the business, each with its own board of directors, yet a “a high level of involvement between ownership and management,” sometimes with substantial ownership in the central company, whose executives may sit on those boards (J. Ramachandran, K. S. Manikandan, and Anirvan Pant, “Why Conglomerates Thrive [Outside the U.S.],” Harvard Business Review [December 2013]).

103. Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Harvard University Press, 1977), 82.

104. Joseph L. Bower, “Planning within the Firm,” The American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings of the 82nd Annual Conference (May 1970): 186–194.

105. Sumantra Ghoshal and I published an article titled “‘Diversifiction and Diversifact’: What a Difference an ‘a’ Can Make,” California Management Review 3 (Fall 1994).

106. If you climb a mountain road on a bicycle and come straight back down, you have done exactly as much uphill as downhill, right? Not quite. You have done as much distance, but you have spent far more time. What matters to you more while climbing on a bicycle—the distance or the time?

107. Ely Devons’s account of statistics and planning in the Air Ministry of the British Government during World War II is a brilliant description of the litany of horrors that can result from mindless counting. See Devons, Planning in Practice: Essays in Aircraft Planning in War-Time (Cambridge University Press, 1950), chapter 7.

108. Henry Mintzberg, “A Note on That Dirty Word Efficiency,” Interfaces 12, no. 5 (October 1982): 101–105, https://www.jstor.org/stable/25060327.

109. Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton, “The Balanced Scorecard—Measures That Drive Performance,” Harvard Business Review (January–February 1992): 71–79.

Chapter 15

110. D. L. Sills, The Volunteers (The Free Press, 1957).

111. Maurice Maeterlinck, The Life of the Bee (Cornell University Press, 1901), 32.

112. Myrada, https://myrada.org, accessed May 16, 2022.

113. Mitz Noda, “The Japanese Way,” Executive (Summer 1980).

114. James Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds (Anchor, 2005), xii.

115. Irving L. Janis, Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes (Houghton Mifflin, 1982).

116. Weick quoted in Robert M. Randall, “Sniping at Strategic Planning,” Planning Review 12, no. 3 (May 1984): 11.

Part VI

117. Charles Darwin to J. D. Hooker, August 1, 1857.

118. This term was coined by Lex Donaldson, who wrote his criticism of configuration theory (lumping) at length, in “For Cartesianism: Against Organizational Types and Quantum Jumps,” in For Positivist Organisation Theory: Proving the Hard Core (Sage, 1996). See also Harold D. Doty, William H. Glick, and George P. Huber, “Fit, Equifinality, and Organizational Effectiveness: A Test of Two Configurational Theories,” in the Academy of Management Journal 36, no. 6 (1993); as well as that of Krabberød, who analyzed the pros and cons of Doty, Glick, and Huber’s study: Tommy Krabberød, “Standing on the Shoulders of Giants? Exploring Consensus on the Validity Status of Mintzberg’s Configuration Theory after a Negative Test,” SAGE Open 5, no. 4 (October 2015).

Chapter 17

119. Danny Miller, The Icarus Paradox: How Exceptional Companies Bring about Their Own Downfall (HarperCollins, 1992).

120. Miller, Icarus Paradox, 4.

121. Danny Miller and Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries, The Neurotic Organization: Diagnosis and Revitalizing Unhealthy Companies (HarperCollins, 1991).

Chapter 18

122. Ray Raphael, Edges: Human Ecology of the Backcountry (Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), 5–6.

123. See the description of a bureau-adhocracy in Arlyne Bailey and Eric H. Nielsen, “Creating a Bureau-Adhocracy: Integrating Standardized and Innovative Services in a Professional Work Group,” Human Relations 45, no. 7 (1992): 687–710.

Chapter 19

124. Thomas Peters and Robert H. Waterman, In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America’s Best-Run Companies (HarperCollins, 1982).

125. Peters and Waterman’s hugely successful book, In Search of Excellence, described some exceptional corporations that managed to endure with excellence, perhaps because they maintained compelling cultures. But this book might have been their undoing: with all that attention, not long after the book appeared, the fortunes of some of them were reversed (as discussed in a famous Business Week article titled “OOPS!” November 5, 1984). For how remarkably stable the structure of a university can be, see our study of McGill University across 150 years: “Strategic Management Upside Down.”

126. Transition to the Divisional Form does not change the machine structure so much as extrapolate it, while culture and conflict can be considered forces that facilitate or provoke these three changes in structure.

127. On internal corporate venturing, see Robert Burgelman, “A Process Model of Internal Corporate Venturing in the Diversified Major Firm,” Administrative Science Quarterly 28, no. 2 (June 1983): 223–244; and Edward Zajac, Brian R. Golden, and Stephen M. Shortell, “New Organizational Forms for Enhancing Innovation: The Case of Internal Corporate Joint Ventures,” Management Science 37, no. 2 (February 1991): 170–184.

128. For a discussion of these last two, see Charles O’Reilly III and Michael Tushman, “The Ambidextrous Organization,” Harvard Business Review 82, no. 4 (April 2004): 74–81.

129. Emi Osono, Norihiko Shimizu, and Hirotaka Takeuchi, Extreme Toyota: Radical Contradictions That Drive Success at the World’s Best Manufacturer (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008), 98.

130. For a further discussion of the separations in hospitals between care, cure, control, and community, see Glouberman and Mintzberg, “Managing the Care of Health and the Cure of Disease,” especially parts I and II; see also Mintzberg, Managing the Myths of Health Care.

131. This has been described in our research on the history of the Volkswagenwerk: Henry Mintzberg, “Patterns in Strategy Formation,” Management Science 24, no. 9 (May 1978): 934–948. See also Mintzberg, Tracking Strategies, especially chapter 2.

132. Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (Harper & Brothers, 1942).

Chapter 20

133. Some of the sources consulted here include Groth, Future Organizational Design; Filipe M. Santos and Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, “Organizational Boundaries and Theories of Organization,” Organization Science 16, no. 5 (September–October 2005): 491–508; Henry Chesbrough, “Business Model Innovation: It’s Not Just About Technology Anymore,” Strategy & Leadership 35, no. 6 (November 2007): 12–17; M.D.L. Seidel and K. J. Stewart, “An Initial Description of the C-form,” Research in the Sociology of Organizations 33 (November 2011): 37–72; Phanish Puranam, Oliver Alexy, and Markus Reitzig, “What’s ‘New’ about New Forms of Organizing?” Academy of Management Review 39, no. 2 (2014): 162–180; Annabelle Gawer and Michael Cusumano, “Business Platforms,” in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd ed. (Elsevier, 2015); Michael G. Jacobides, Carmelo Cennamo, and Annabelle Gawer, “Towards a Theory of Ecosystems,” Strategic Management Journal 39, no. 8 (May 2018): 2255–2276; and Andrew Shipilov and Annabelle Gawer, “Integrating Research on Interorganizational Networks and Ecosystems,” Academy of Management Annals 14 no. 1 (January 2020): 92–121. They are listed together here because many do not fit neatly into one or other of the categories used in this chapter.

134. Carol W. Gelderman et al., “Henry Ford,” in Encyclopaedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-Ford, 2022.

135. Groth, Future Organizational Design, 166.

136. Victor-Adrian Troacă and Dumitru-Alexandru Bodislav, “Outsourcing. The Concept,” Theoretical and Applied Economics 19, no. 6 (2012): 51–58.

137. C. K. Prahalad and Gary Hamel, “The Core Competence of the Corporation,” Harvard Business Review (May–June 1990): 79–91; also C. K. Prahalad and Gary Hamel, Competing for the Future (Harvard Business Review Press, 1996).

138. Henry W. Chesbrough and Melissa M. Appleyard, “Open Innovation and Strategy,” California Management Review 50, no. 1 (Fall 2007): 22.

139. BioNTech chief executive Ugur Sahin and his wife, Oezlem Tuereci. Ludwig Burger and Patricia Weiss, “Behind Pfizer’s Vaccine, an Understated Husband-and-Wife: ‘Dream Team,’” Reuters, November 9, 2020.

140. Seidel and Stewart, “Initial Description of the C-form.”

141. It has been suggested that such users be called “complementors” rather than suppliers. See Shipilov and Gawer, “Integrating Research on Interorganizational Networks and Ecosystems.”

142. Hence Benoît Demil and Xavier Lecocq refer to “bazaar governance—based on a specific legal contract: the open licence” in “Neither Market nor Hierarchy nor Network: The Emergence of Bazaar Governance,” Organization Studies 27, no. 10 (October 2006): 1447.

143. Göran Ahrne and Nils Brunsson, “Organizations and Meta-organizations,” Scandinavian Journal of Management 21, no. 4 (2005): 429–449.

144. Among the topics of CoachingOurselves.com related to this book are “Developing Our Organization as a Community,” “Silos and Slabs in Organizations,” “Virtual Teams,” “Political Games in Organizations,” and “Management Styles: Art, Craft, Science.”

Chapter 21

145. Simon, Sciences of the Artificial, 55.

146. Jeanne Liedtka and Henry Mintzberg, “Time for Design,” Design Management Review (Spring 2006).

147. Peters and Waterman, In Search of Excellence, 108, from Gordon Siu https://ejstrategy.wordpress.com/2011/04/19/sbb-bees-and-flies-making-strategy/.

148. Yoshinori Yokoyama, “An Architect Looks at Organization Design,” McKinsey Quarterly no. 4 (Autumn 1992): 126.

149. Yokoyama, “Architect Looks at Organization Design,” 122.

150. “How Do People Define Design Thinking,” IDEO, https://designthinking.ideo.com/faq/how-do-people-define-design-thinking (accessed August 30, 2021).

151. So did Yuval Harari: “Microsoft isn’t the buildings it owns, the people it employs, the shareholders it serves—rather, it is an intricate legal fiction woven by lawmakers and lawyers.” From his book 21 Lessons for the 21st Century (Spiegel & Grau, 2018), 248.

152. See Unstitution’s LinkedIn page at www.linkedin.com/company/unstitution.