Aarva, P. 99
acquaintances, exchanges with 114, 127, 136–139, 141–142, 149, 151–158, 159, 161, 198
Agranovich, M. 95
Albania: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44; informal employment 109–111
Alexeev, M. 15
alternative economy thesis 36, 50–51, 55, 119–120, 194, 201–204
Anderson, J. 61
anti-corruption legislation, universities 98
‘anti-modern economies’ 12
Arab countries, transition support 13
Armenia: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44, 45–48
Babb, S. 39
Bartlett, B. 17
Bayat, A. 31
Belarus, formal market penetration 45–48
Bennholdt-Thomsen, V. 180
Berliner, J. 14
Beveridge, W. 38
Bloch, J. 41
Bosnia/Herzegovina: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–45
Braithwaite, J. 15
bribes, willingness to give 104
Brooke, C. 67
Brown, D. 139
Bruff, I. 39
Buckner, L. 135
Budlender, D. 181
Bulgaria: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–45; informal employment 109–113; quasi-formal employment 81–88
Burki, S. 26
Burova, N. 95
by-product thesis 49–50, 120, 121, 194, 200–202, 203
Carrier, J. 29
Carroll, T. 38
Carruthers, B. 39
Central and Southeastern Europe (EU) states: informal employment 111–113; quasi-formal employment 81–88
Central and Southeastern Europe (non-EU) states: formal market penetration 42–48; informal employment 109–111; participation in formal employment 78–79
Chen, C. 163
Chen, M. 201
Cherneyshev, I. 60
Chicago, informal practices 31
choice, informal work as 50–51, 114, 116–117, 120, 129, 131, 132, 139, 142, 159, 178, 181, 184, 188, 197, 199
Christiansen, T. 19
Ciscel, D. 34
Clarke, S. 67, 68, 99–100, 117, 139, 190
‘closed’ labour markets 99–100; entering and surviving 100–104
Colton, T. 14
command economy 14–18; failure of 18–22
commodification, blockages to 41
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): formal market penetration 42–48; informal employment 109–113; participation in formal employment 78–79
community labour: definition of 60; Moscow 70–74; Ukraine 62–67
consumer shortages 15–16, 17, 18
Cook, L.J. 164
corporate social responsibility (CSR) 79
corruption: formal economy 91–106; post-Soviet economy 24–25; Ukraine 61
Cowling, K. 26
Cox, R. 129
creativity perspective, self-provisioning 181–185, 187–188
credit access, impact of illicit wage payments 89–90
Crisp, B. 21
Croatia: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–45; informal employment 109–111
Crouch, C. 34
Czech Republic: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–45; informal employment 109–113; quasi-formal employment 81–88
dacha, role in household economies 188–191
Davies, R.W. 14
Davis, M. 50
De Paolis, F. 26
de Ruijter, E. 188
‘dependency’ culture 51
direct evaluation methods: formal market penetration 44–48; informal employment measurement 61–62, 111–113
diverse economies perspective 51–54, 179–180; beyond the formal–informal economy dichotomy 56–57; Moscow 67–74; total social organisation of labour approach 57–60; Ukraine 60–67
domestic services provision: formal unpaid labour 167, 168–169, 172; informal unpaid labour 173; labour provision 65, 66, 72, 73; one-to-one unpaid labour 137, 140–141; paid favours 149–151, 153–156, 158; reimbursed family labour 144–145, 147
domestic services tasks 62, 70
Dzvinka, R. 61
economic necessity, informal work as 50, 81, 117–118, 120, 121, 129, 131–132, 138–139, 158, 180, 181, 183, 184–188, 192
economic rationale, paid favours 151–154, 156–158
economic re-figuring, in post-Soviet societies 54–55
economic stagnation 17
education legislation, exploitation of loopholes in 98
Eikenberry, A. 34
emotional investments 40
employment, finding through connections 99–104
employment legislation 68; difficulties upholding 102; lack of knowledge of 174–176
Enste, D. 61
Escobar, A. 53
Estonia: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44; informal employment 109–113; quasi-formal employment 81–88
Eurobarometer survey (2007) 81–88, 111–113
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) 13, 23–26
European Union, membership of 24
European Values Survey (2008) 164–165
examination systems, corruption in 94, 96, 97–98
exclusion, formal economy 113–123, 125–129
family breakdowns 143
family labour: definition of 60; Moscow 70–74; Ukraine 62–67
favours: Moscow 70–74; Ukraine 62–67; under Soviet system 16–17, 18
Fernandez-Kelly, P. 50
Fine, B. 13
Fish, S. 163
Fitoussi, J.-P. 27
Fordism 50
formal employment: definition of 59–60; Moscow 70–74; post-Soviet/socialist economies 78–79; Ukraine 62–67
formal market economy: crime and corruption in 91–106; as delusion 39–41; evaluation of shift to 41–48; exclusion from 113–123, 125–129; informal economy as alternative to 50–51; informal economy as by-product of 49–50; informal economy as residue of 48–49; as natural/constructed 38–39; transition to 131–132; voluntary exit from 113–123, 125–129
formal market status: achievement of 23–26; direct measures of 44–48; positive/negative aspects of 37–38; proxy measurement of 42–44
formal unpaid employment: lived experiences 169–172; Moscow 167–169; private and public sector 162; third sector 162–165; Ukraine 166–167
formalisation, illusion of 80–91
formalisation thesis 28, 29–33, 40, 48–49, 52–53
Freeland, C. 22
friends, exchanges with 40–41, 46, 60, 93, 127, 136–139, 141–142, 149, 151–158
Fukuyama, F. 18
full(er) employment, evaluating shift towards 42–44
Gabrisch, H. 19
Gaddy, C. 12, 22, 99, 163, 164
gender inequality 101
gender and informal self-employment 118–119, 124–125, 129
geographical variations, command economy 14
Georgia: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44, 45–48; informal employment 109–111
Gibson-Graham, J.K. 52, 53, 57
Giddens, A. 28
gifts 41, 60, 92, 94, 136, 138, 144, 145, 148–149, 155–156, 159
global financial crisis 13, 36–37
globalisation and informalisation 32–33
Gray, C. 61
Grishina, K. 97
Grossman, G. 17
Guariglia, A. 119
Gudeman, S. 39
Günther, I. 31
Güven, A. 27
Harrison, M. 17
healthcare system, informality in 104–106
Heath, J. 34
‘hegemonic left-liberalism’ 35–37
Helmsing, A. 30
Henry, L.A. 163
Heyneman, S. 95
hierarchical sequencing 30–33, 52, 56–57
Hochschild, A.R. 188
Hollander, M.J. 136
Holmes, L. 99
Horn, L. 39
Höslscher, J. 19
household income: formal unpaid employment by 166–169; informal employment by 113–118, 120–121, 122–123, 127–128, 130–131; informal unpaid employment by 173; labour participation rates by 63–67, 68–74; one-to-one unpaid labour by 136–141; paid favours by 149–158; reimbursed family labour by 143–149; role of formal/informal work cultures 200–201; self-provisioning by 181–185, 186–188
housing costs 15
Howard, M.M. 162
Hungary: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–45; informal employment 109–113; quasi-formal employment 81–88
‘hybrid capitalism’ 12
illicit wage payments 67–68, 77, 80–91, 162, 171–172
in-kind payments 58, 60, 131, 136, 138, 139, 143–146, 148–149, 152, 155–156
independent external assessment (IEA) scheme, universities 98
indirect methods, informal employment measurement 108–111
individuality perspective, self-provisioning 181–185, 187–188
informal economies: as alternative to formal economy 50–51; as by-product of formal economy 49–50; in formalisation thesis 29–33; in marketisation thesis 33–37; role in post-Soviet societies 48–54; role in post-Soviet world 199–204; role in Soviet Union 14–18
informal employment: definition of 59–60, 107; Moscow 70–74, 123–132; post-Soviet/socialist societies 108–114; in transition to formal economy 131–132; typology of 133–134; Ukraine 62–67, 113–123
informal employment tasks 124
informal sector as residue 48–49
informal self-employment: Moscow 130–131; Ukraine 118–123
informal unpaid employment: character of 173–176; definition of 56–60; extent of 173
informal waged employment: Moscow 129; Ukraine 117–118
informality: former Soviet Union 16–18; healthcare system 104–106; kindergartens 92–93; recruitment practices 99–104; school system 93–95; university system 95–98
integrative conceptual framework 202–204
inter-generational transfers 143–145, 146, 147–148, 149, 159
International Labor Organisation (ILO) 32, 50
international lending agencies 11, 13–14, 19, 25–26
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 13–14, 19, 26
internationalisation 20–21, 22
internships 59, 101, 160, 161, 162, 167, 168, 170–171, 175–176
Kazakhstan: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44, 45–48; informal employment 109–111
Kelly, M. 21
Kesseli, K. 95
Kiblitskaya, M. 17
kindergartens, informality in 92–93
kinship exchanges 137–139, 141–142, 151–154, 156–158
Kiseldeva, L. 106
Klimova, A. 101
Klugman, J. 15
Knuuttila, T. 13
Koen, V. 22
Korchinsky, V. 97
Krantz-Kent, R. 181
Kulikov, G. 2
Kulcsar, L. 139
Kuzio, T. 24
Kuznetsov, A. 15
Kuznetsova, O. 15
Kyrgyzstan: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44, 45–48; informal employment 109–111
labour markets, ‘closed’ nature of 99–104
labour turnover 17
Latvia: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44; informal employment 109–113; quasi-formal employment 81–88
Launov, A. 31
Ledeneva, A. 14, 16–17, 67, 156, 163
Lefebvre, H. 122
Lemaitre, A. 30
Lerche, J. 32
Levin, M. 25
Lewis, A. 31
Lithuania: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44; informal employment 109–113; quasi-formal employment 81–88
lived experiences: formal unpaid employment 169–172; quasi-formal employment 88–91; transition 195–199
locality: formal unpaid employment by 166–169; informal employment by 113–118, 120–121, 122–123, 127–128, 130–131; informal unpaid employment by 173; labour participation rates by 63–67, 68–74; one-to-one unpaid labour by 136–141; paid favours by 149–158; reimbursed family labour by 143–149; role of formal/informal work cultures 200–201; self-provisioning by 181–185, 186–188
Lyon, D. 58
McAuley, A. 14
McCarthy, D.J. 99
McCleery, R. 26
Macedonia: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–45; informal employment 109–111
McFarlane, C. 30
market economy, Soviet transition to 18–22
market institutions 19–20, 25–26
market-led reforms, durability of transition theory 11–13
marketisation thesis 28, 33–37, 40, 52–53
‘marriage market’ 40
Martin, R. 40
Marxism 37
medicines, access to 105
Miller, D. 29
Milonakis, D. 13
Mishler, W. 163
modernisation theory 48–49, 179, 183, 186, 192
Moldova: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44, 45–48; informal employment 109–111
Morgan, M. 13
Morton, H. 16
Moscow: evaluating diverse economies 67–74; evaluating self-provisioning 185–188; formal unpaid employment 167–169; informal unpaid employment 173–176; informal self-employment 130–131; informal waged employment 129; lived experiences of formal unpaid employment 169–172; lived experiences of quasi-formal employment 88–91; mapping plurality of labour practices 70–74; motives for self-provisioning 187–188; nature of one-to-one unpaid labour 141–142; nature of paid favours 156–158; paid favours 154–156; prevalence and nature of formal employment 123–132; prevalence of one-to-one unpaid labour 139–141; reimbursed family labour 147–149; transition to formal economy 131–132
multiple indicators, multiple causes (MIMIC) approach 108–111
Myant, M. 24
neighbourly exchanges 114, 127, 136–139, 141–142, 149, 151–158, 159, 161, 198
neo-liberal economic model 13–14, 35–37; Soviet transition to 18–20
neo-liberal theory 50–51, 80–88, 113–118, 125–126, 127–128
New Democracies Barometer (NDB) surveys 45, 61
Nikitina, I. 94
Nordhaus, W. 16
O’Hearn, D. 17
official declared wage 67–68, 77, 80–91
one-to-one oral examinations 97–98
one-to-one unpaid labour 60, 65–66; definition of 136; Moscow 70–74, 136–137, 139–141; Ukraine 62–67, 137–139, 141–142
Onikov, L. 15
organic view of capitalism 38–39
overtime work, illicit wage payments 81, 83, 84, 88
Ozmidova, E. 95
paid favours: Moscow 154–158; nature of 151–154, 156–158; Ukraine 149–154
Parry, M. 41
paternalistic state–society relations, legacy of 162–164
Patico, J. 94
Peck, J. 29
pensions 1–2, 22, 45–47, 65, 67, 83, 88, 89, 121, 129, 131
Perry, G. 26
petty corruption 17
Pfau-Effinger, B. 129
Phillips, N. 31
Phillips, S. 22
Pickles, J. 12
Poland: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–45; informal employment 109–113; marketisation 19–20; quasi-formal employment 81–88
policy approaches, informal work 203
Popov, V. 14
post-modernist approach 184, 185, 188
post-structuralist theory 51–54, 56, 80–88, 113–118, 127–128, 134, 197
post-Washington Consensus 26, 38
poverty: post-Soviet economy 24; Ukraine 61; under Soviet command system 14–18
Poznanski, K. 163
preschool education provision 92–93
private lessons, state schools 94–95
private sector: formal unpaid employment 162, 166–169; informal unpaid employment 174–175; lived experiences of formal unpaid employment 169–172; in marketisation thesis 33–37
privatisation 20, 22, 23–24, 25
proxy measures: formal market penetration 42–44; informal employment 61
public sector: formal unpaid employment 162, 166–169; informal unpaid employment 175–176; lived experiences of formal unpaid employment 169–172; in marketisation thesis 33–37; Moscow 72–74; Ukraine 62–67
quasi-formal employment: extent of 82–83; lived experiences 88–91; relationship between national tax rates and 83–85; relationship with state intervention 85–88
rational economic calculation, self-provisioning 180–185, 187–188
Rechel, B. 104
reciprocal relationships 41, 60, 136, 138–143, 145–146, 148–149; see also paid favours
recruitment practices, informality in 99–104
redistributive rationale: informal employment 116–117; paid favours 151–154, 156–158
registered enterprises: Moscow 130–131; Ukraine 118–123
regular work, illicit wage payments 81, 83, 84, 88
reimbursed family labour 142–144; Moscow 147–149; Ukraine 144–146
relationships, consolidation of 137–138, 141–142
reluctant self-provisioning 181–185, 187–188
residue thesis 48–49, 179, 192, 200, 201–202, 203
Rimashevskaya, N. 15
Rivkin-Fish, M. 104
Roberts, K. 103
Rodrik, D. 19
Romania: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44; informal employment 109–113; quasi-formal employment 81–88
Rose, R. 12, 61, 162, 163, 164
Ross, R. 101
Rotkirch, A. 95
Round, J. 6, 14, 15, 61, 67–68, 88
Roy, A. 32
Russia: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44, 45–48; informal employment 109–111
Rutland, P. 14
Saif, I. 13
Saraceno, F. 27
Sarkisyan, S. 15
Sassen, S. 32
Satarov, G. 25
Sauvy, A. 51
school system, informality in 93–95
self-employment: Moscow 130–131; Ukraine 118–123
self-provisioning: definition of 178–179; explaining 180–181; Moscow 70–74, 185–188; motives for 183–185, 187–188; role of dachas 188–191; Ukraine 62–67, 181–185; views on prevalence of 179–180
Serbia and Montenegro: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–45
service sector, use of bribery 101
Settersten, R.A. 135
Shafik, N. 13
Sharafutdinova, G. 99
Shmelev, N. 14
Sil, P. 163
skilled labour shortages 17
Slovakia: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–45; informal employment 109–113; quasi-formal employment 81–88
Slovenia: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–45; informal employment 109–113; quasi-formal employment 81–88
Smolar, A. 162
social connections (blat) 16–17, 156, 163, 170–171; finding employment through 99–104; in higher education 95–97
social costs, market reforms 12, 21–22, 24–25
social justice, lack of 102–103
social networks, expansion of 117, 122–123, 137–139, 141–142, 159
social protection expenditure and quasi-formal employment 81, 83, 85–88
social rationales, informal employment 113–118, 125–129
social relations, effects of commodification 37–41
social security entitlement, impact of illicit wage payments 89, 90
social transfers 15, 21, 65, 82, 87, 89, 90
socially constructed capitalism 38–39
Southworth, C. 189
Soviet Union: collapse of 18–22; informal economies 14–18
spatial sequencing, formal/informal work 30–33
stabilisation 20
state, ‘over-withdrawal’ of 163–164
state control and monitoring 16–18
state intervention, relationship with quasi-formal employment 81, 85–88
statutory and legal responsibilities 174–176
Stebbins, R.A. 119
Strayer, R. 18
structuralist theory 49–50, 80–88, 113–118
Sundstrom, L.M. 163
Sunley, P. 40
Sutela, P. 26
Swain, A. 21
Syrinov, A. 21
Tajikistan: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44; informal employment 109–111
tax rates, relationship with quasi-formal employment 81, 83–85
Taylor, R.F. 58
textbook economies 11–12, 13–14, 18, 29
Thatcherism 37
third sector: formal unpaid employment 162–165, 166–169; informal unpaid employment 173–174; lived experiences of formal unpaid employment 172; Moscow 72–74; Ukraine 62–67
Thrift, N. 35
time-budget studies 44–45, 180
Tomlinson, P. 26
Tonkiss, F. 38
total social organisation of labour (TSOL) approach 56, 57–60
transition: achievement of 23–26; ‘four pillars’ of 20–22; lived experiences 195–199; re-theorising 193–195; starting points 14–18, 19–20, 26
transition economies, (re) theorizing 193–195
transition theory, durability of 11–14
Transparency International (2005) survey 61
trial periods 160, 161, 162, 169–170
trust/reliability perspective, self-provisioning 181–185, 187–188
Turkey, informal employment 109–111
Turkmenistan: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44
Ukraine: evaluating diverse economies of 60–67; evaluating self-provisioning 181–185; formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44, 45–48; formal unpaid employment 166–167; informal employment 109–111; informal self-employment 118–123; informal unpaid employment 172–176; informal waged employment 117–118; lived experiences of formal unpaid employment 169–172; lived experiences of quasi-formal employment 88–91; motives for self-provisioning 183–185; nature of one-to-one unpaid labour 137–139; nature of paid favours 151–154; paid favours 149–151; participation in one-to-one unpaid labour 136–137; prevalence and nature of informal employment 113–123; reimbursed family labour 144–146
‘under provisioning’ 15
university system, informality in 95–98
unofficial undeclared ‘envelope’ wage 67–68, 77, 80–91, 162, 171–172
unpaid employment: Moscow 70–74; Ukraine 62–67; see also formal unpaid labour; one-to-one unpaid labour
unregistered enterprises: Moscow 130–131; Ukraine 118–123
unwilling self-provisioning 181–185
Urlanis, B. 15
Uzbekistan: formal employment participation rates 78–79; formal market penetration 42–44
varieties of capitalism 11–14, 22–23, 39
Venkatesh, S. 31
Verdery, K. 21
Vinogradova, E. 164
‘virtual economies’ 12, 22, 29–30
voluntary exit, formal economy 113–123, 125–129
volunteering see third sector
wage differentials 14
wages, non-payment of 90–91, 162, 171–172
Waibel, M. 30
Walker, C. 99
Walling, D. 35
Washington Consensus 29, 36; criticisms of 25–26; rise of 18–22
Weesie, J. 188
Weinberg, E. 16
‘welfare capitalist’ countries, and quasi-formal employment 81, 83, 85–88
White, R. 31
whole economy perspective 2, 3–4, 179–180
Williams, C.C. 31, 46, 59, 88, 107, 137, 151, 166, 179–180, 181, 203
Williamson, J. 19
willing self-provisioning 181–185, 187–188
work practices, typology of 58–60
World Bank 19, 25–26; ‘Doing Business 2009’ survey 61
World Giving Index (2011) 164
World Trade Organisation (WTO) 24
Yeandle, S. 135