Manager Performance Index—Variations by Country | |
|---|---|
Country | Percentage Agreeing That Immediate Manager Is Effective (%) |
Source: The New Employment Deal: How Far, How Fast and How Enduring, Towers Watson, 2010. | |
India | 70 |
China | 67 |
Malaysia | 63 |
Mexico | 61 |
Singapore | 58 |
Switzerland | 57 |
Ireland | 55 |
U.S. | 54 |
Brazil | 54 |
Australia | 54 |
Russia | 53 |
Canada | 52 |
Hong Kong | 51 |
Germany | 49 |
Netherlands | 49 |
U.K. | 48 |
Belgium | 46 |
South Korea | 45 |
France | 44 |
Italy | 43 |
Spain | 42 |
Japan | 33 |
At a broad level, we can discern a difference between emerging markets and established economies. Additionally, there are some geographic trends. In Europe, for example, employees in northern countries tend to record higher scores than their Mediterranean counterparts. We have found that, across a range of scoring categories, including employee engagement and manager effectiveness, Japanese survey takers tend to give responses at the low end of the scale.
Psychologists commonly study five specific personality traits:
Conscientiousness: Orderliness, self-control, dutifulness, attention to detail, and discipline in the pursuit of goals. A by-product is the ability to delay gratification and pursue planned-for rather than spontaneous objectives.
Agreeableness: Compassion, a spirit of cooperation, forgiveness, tolerance, and motivation to achieve interpersonal intimacy.
Openness to experience: Pursuit of intellectual novelty and complexity, tendency to make associations between disparate domains. Openness may be manifested in unusual ideas, curiosity, and appreciation for art.
Extroversion: Positive energy and emotions, interest in exploring, tendency to seek stimulation and enjoy the company of others.
Neuroticism: Anxiety, depression, anger, guilt, and heightened risk aversion. Neuroticism is often expressed positively in its opposite form, emotional stability—equanimity, calm, freedom from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative impulses does not mean that emotionally stable people feel strong positive emotions, however. That trait tends to be captured by extroversion.
[1] Kark, S., and van Rensburg, B. J., "Ecotones: Marginal or Central Areas of Transition?" Israel Journal of Ecology & Evolution, 2006, 52, 30–31.
[2] The New Employment Deal: How Far, How Fast and How Enduring, Towers Watson, 2010. In the text, this source will be referred to as the 2010 Towers Watson global workforce study.
[3] http://bobsutton.typepad.com/my_weblog/2008/10/management-by-getting-out-of-the-way.html.
[4] Army Leadership: Competent, Confident and Agile, Headquarters, Department of the Army, 6–22, October 2006, 3–7.
[5] Samuelson, R. J., The Good Life and Its Discontents: The American Dream in the Age of Entitlement—1945–1995, New York: Times Books, 1995, 48.
[6] Drucker, P. F., The Practice of Management, New York: Harper & Row, 1954, 4.
[7] Ibid., 320.
[8] U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Corporate Profits Before Tax by Industry: 1929–2007, http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?series_id=LNS14000000.
[9] Samuelson, 114.
[10] Davenport, T. O., Human Capital: What It Is and Why People Invest It, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999, 5.
[11] Atwood, J., Coke, E., Cooper, C., and Loria, K., Has Downsizing Gone Too Far? University of North Florida, December 1995, 7.
[12] U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, Unemployment Rate: January 1992–June 2009.
[13] Davenport, 5.
[14] Atwood, 7.
[15] U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, Employed Persons by Detailed Occupation and Sex, 2000–2007 Annual Averages.
[16] Throughout the book, we will use the terms "supervisor" and "manager" more or less interchangeably. In all cases, we are referring to the first-line positions at or below the middle of the organizational pyramid.
[17] Wikipedia, Middle Management, http://en.wikipedia.org./wiki/Middle_management.
[18] Saxon, M., sidebar entitled "Leadership as Core Competency," in "Who Executes? Why CEOs Should Encourage Those in the Middle to Lead the Way," The Conference Board Review, Fall 2009, 49.
[19] Kaiser, R. B., Hogan, R., and Craig, S. B., "Leadership and the Fate of Organizations," American Psychologist, February–March 2008, 107.
[20] Gosling, J., and Mintzberg, H., "The Five Minds of a Manager," Harvard Business Review, Reprint R0311C, November 2003, 1.
[21] Grace Hopper Quotes, http://womenshistory.about.com/od/quotes/a/grace_hopper.htm.
[22] Leadership versus Management, www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/leadership_vs_mgmt.html.
[23] Rowe, W. G., "Creating Wealth in Organizations: The Role of Strategic Leadership," Academy of Management Executive, 2001, 15(1), 82.
[24] Byrnes, N., and others, "Reuben Mark, Colgate-Palmolive: The Detail Man," www.businessweek.com/print/magazine/content/02_38/b3800006.htm, September 23, 2002, 1.
[25] Jones, D., "Even Good CEOs Can Pick the Wrong Direction," http://usatoday.com/money/companies/management/2007–11–06-mistakes_N.htm, 1.
[26] Martin, R., "The Age of Customer Capitalism," Harvard Business Review, January-February 2010, 61–62.
[27] "Employees First: Strategies for Service," http://knowledge.wpcarey.asu.edu/article.cfm?articleid=1620, June 26, 2008, 1.
[28] Schultz, H., and Yang, D. J., Pour Your Heart into It: How Starbucks Built a Company One Cup at a Time, New York: Hyperion, 1997, 6.
[29] Ibid., 245.
[30] Buckingham, M., "What Great Managers Do," Harvard Business Review, Reprint R0503D, March 2005, 1–2.
[31] Vogl, A. J., "Managerial Correctness," The Conference Board Review, July/August 2004, 21.
[32] See Davenport, Human Capital, for a more detailed discussion of the people-as-investors metaphor.
[33] Closing the Engagement Gap: A Roadmap For Driving Superior Business Performance, 2007, Towers Perrin.
[34] Ibid.
[35] The New Employment Deal: How Far, How Fast and How Enduring, Towers Watson, 2010.
[36] Andel, Marie, personal communication with Tom Davenport, March 2010. Used with permission.
[37] Welbourne, T., "Employee Engagement: Doing It vs. Measuring," www.eepulse.com/documents/pdfs/HR.com-9–8–03.pdf, September 10, 2003.
[38] Linden, G., "First, Kill All the Managers," http://glinden.blogspot.com/2006/05/first-kill-all-managers.html, May 30, 2006.
[39] Turmel, W., "I Don't Want to Be a Manager! View from the Middle," www.management-issues.com/2007/5/14/opinion/i-don't-want-to-be-a-manager.asp, May 14, 2007.
[40] "Managers of Tomorrow: Setting a New Standard," 2009 World of Work Topic Report, Randstad, 2009, 2.
[41] Turmel.
[42] Randstad, 2.
[43] "Are Companies Prepared for the Looming Manager Shortage?" Press release on Randstad, "Managers of Tomorrow: Setting a New Standard," 2009 World of Work Topic Report, July 23, 2009, 1.
[44] U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, Employment Status of the Civilian Noninstitutional Population by Sex and Age, Seasonally Adjusted, www.bls.gov/cps/lfcharacteristics.htm#laborforce, and Civilian Labor Force Level—Bachelor's Degree and Higher 1992–2008, http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveytOutputServlet.
[45] The New Employment Deal: How Far, How Fast and How Enduring, Towers Watson, 2010.
[46] U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Economic News Release, Table 1: Median Years of Tenure with Current Employer for Employed Wage and Salary Workers by Age and Sex, Selected Years, 1983–2004, 1996–2008, www.bls.gov/news.release/tenure.t01.htm and www.bls.gov/opub/cwc/tables/cm20050926ar01t1.htm.
[47] Towers Watson.
[48] U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Economic News Release, Table 1: Median Years of Tenure with Current Employer for Employed Wage and Salary Workers by Age and Sex, Selected Years, 1983–2004, 1996–2008, www.bls.gov/news.release/tenure.t01.htm and www.bls.gov/opub/cwc/tables/cm20050926ar01t1.htm.
[49] Home Broadband Adoption 2009, Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2009, 3, 14.
[50] Addressing Email Chaos: The Email-Manager" Solution, The Radicati Group, Inc., 2008, 4.
[51] Walsh, M., "Survey: Social Networks Not So Hot in the Workplace (and No One Cares)," MediaPostNEWS, www.mediapost.com/publications/?fa=Articles.showArticle&art_aid=109046, July 2, 2009.
[52] Facebook, www.facebook.com/press/info.php?statistics.
[53] Smith, J., "Fastest Growing Demographic on Facebook: Women over 55," www.insidefacebook.com/2009/02/02/fastest-growing-demographic-on-facebook-women-over-55/, February 2, 2009.
[54] Johansmeyer, T., "Size Matters and Twitter's Got It with Tweet Volume," www.bloggingstocks.com/2010/02/13/size-matters-and-twitter-s-got-it-with-tweet-volume/, February 13, 2010.
[55] "Social Networking and Reputational Risk in the Workplace," Deloitte LLP 2009 Ethics & Workplace Survey Results, Deloitte Development LLC, 2009, 11.
[56] Towers Watson.
[57] Similar trends have been forecast for Europe. For example, it was predicted that in 2008, two million European jobs in the financial services sector would have been transferred to India. (See Grint, K., The Sociology of Work, 3rd Edition, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005, 339.) In many European countries, a shift from bureaucratic to market-led forms of social exchange has led to an increase in the contractualization and commoditization of work. (See McGovern, P., Hill, S., Mills, C., and White, M., Market, Class and Employment, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, 44–45.) Although peaks and troughs in employment have largely paralleled economic trends, concerns about job security have grown dramatically. An analysis of newspaper articles in the United Kingdom between 1986 and 1996 revealed a 100-fold increase in the frequency of news stories on the topic of job insecurity during a period when unemployment actually fell (Grint, 126).
[58] U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, Unemployment Rate: January 1990–April 2010, http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet.
[59] U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Extended Mass Layoffs in 2006, Report 1004, and Extended Mass Layoffs—First Quarter of 2010, Economic News Release USDL 10–0644, May 12, 2010, www.bls.gov/news.release/mslo.nr0.htm
[60] Towers Watson.
[61] Saxon, M., sidebar entitled "Leadership as Core Competency," in "Who Executes? Why CEOs Should Encourage Those in the Middle to Lead the Way," The Conference Board Review, Fall 2009, 49.
[62] Keltner, D., Gruenfeld, D. H., and Anderson, C., "Power, Approach, and Inhibition," Psychological Review, 2003, 110(2), 277.
[63] Van Vugt, M., "Evolutionary Origins of Leadership and Followership," Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2006, 10(4), 354.
[64] Woodard, B., "First Sergeant: Leadership by Example," www.fairchild.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123126830, December 5, 2008.
[65] Van Vugt, M., Hogan, R., and Kaiser, R. B., "Leadership, Followership, and Evolution: Some Lessons from the Past," American Psychologist, 2008, 63(3), 186.
[66] Erdal, D., and Whiten, A., "On Human Egalitarianism: An Evolutionary Product of Machiavellian Status Escalation?" Current Anthropology, 1994, 35(2), 178.
[67] Ames, D. R., and Flynn, F. J., "What Breaks a Leader: The Curvilinear Relation Between Assertiveness and Leadership," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2007, 92(2), 308.
[68] Ibid., 308.
[69] Boehm, C., "Egalitarian Behavior and Reverse Dominance Hierarchy," Current Anthropology, 1993, 34(3), 232–238.
[70] Selvin, M., "States Putting Bullying Bosses on Notice: Act Like a Jerk and You Risk a Costly Suit," http://articles.sfgate.com/2007–08–22/business/17258237_1_working-america-lobbying-arm-bad-boss-worst-boss, August 22, 2007.
[71] Bono, J. E., Foldes, H. J., Vinson, G., and Muros, J. P., "Workplace Emotions: The Role of Supervision and Leadership," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2007, 92(5), 1363.
[72] Miner, A. G., Glomb, T. M., and Hulin, C., "Experience Sampling Mood and Its Correlates at Work," Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 2005, 178–179.
[73] Ibid., 183.
[74] Van Vugt, 2008, 189.
[75] Richerson, P. J., and Boyd, R., Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2005, 105.
[76] For a full discussion of competitive strategy, see for example Porter, M., Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, New York: The Free Press, 1985; Treacy, M., and Wiersema, F., The Discipline of Market Leaders, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1995; and Kaplan, R. S., and Norton, D. P., "Having Trouble with Your Strategy? Then Map It," Harvard Business Review, September-October 2000.
[77] Hatch, N. W., and Dyer, J. H., "Human Capital and Learning as a Source of Sustainable Competitive Advantage," Strategic Management Journal, 2004, 25, 1171–1173.
[78] Ibid., 1172.
[79] Clark, R., "Inside Intel, It's All Copying—In Setting Up Its New Plants, Chip Maker Clones Older Ones Down to the Paint on the Wall," The Wall Street Journal Online, http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/djreprints/access/224262211.html?FMT=FT&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+28%2C+2002&author=By+Don+Clark&pub=Wall+Street+Journal&edition=&startpage=B.1&desc=Inside+Intel%2C+It%27s+All+Copying++—++In+Setting+Up+Its+New+Plants%2C++Chip+Maker+Clones+Older+Ones++Down+to+the+Paint+on+the+Wall, October 28, 2002.
[80] Edwards, C., "Inside Intel: Paul Otellini's Plan Will Send the Chipmaker into Uncharted Territory. And Founder Andy Grove Applauds the Shift," www.businessweek.com/print/magazine/content/06_02/b3966001.htm?chan=gl, January 9, 2006.
[81] Southwest Airlines Co., 2009 Annual Report to Shareholders.
[82] Air Travel Consumer Report, U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Aviation Enforcement and Proceedings, May 2010, 4–5, 28–29, 38.
[83] Gittell, J. H., "Supervisory Span, Relational Coordination and Flight Departure Performance: A Reassessment of Postbureaucracy Theory," Organization Science, July–August 2001, 12(4), 477.
[84] Ibid., 478.
[85] Southwest Airlines Fact Sheet, www.southwest.com/about_swa/press/factsheet.html.
[86] "Something Special about Southwest Airlines," CBSNews.com, www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/08/30/Sunday/printable3221531.shtml, September 2, 2007.
[87] "Performance Measures: Southwest Airlines Compared to All Low-Cost Carriers," Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA), Bureau of Transportation Statistics, www.bts.gov/programs/airline_information/performance_measures_in_the_airline_industry/, First Quarter 2007.
[88] "SAS Fraud Management Wins Technology Innovation of the Year Award," SAS press release, September 23, 2008.
[89] SAS Corporate Statistics/Facts & Figures, www.sas.com/presscenter/bgndr_statistics.html.
[90] Florida, R., and Goodnight, J., "Managing for Creativity," Harvard Business Review, Reprint R0507L, July–August 2005, 3.
[91] Ibid., 6.
[92] Ibid.
[93] Fishman, C., "Sanity Inc.," www.fastcompany.com/node/36173/print, December 18, 2007, 2.
[94] Wang, J., "Investigating Market Value and Intellectual Capital for S&P 500," Journal of Intellectual Capital, 2008, 9(4), 559–561.
[95] Hatch, 1170–1172.
[96] Ibid., 1171.
[97] Dokko, G., Wilk, S. L., and Rothbard, N. P., "Unpacking Prior Experience: How Career History Affects Job Performance," Organization Science, January-February 2009, 20(4), 51, 54.
[98] Ibid., 59.
[99] Ibid., 51–52.
[100] The task-execution and people-development elements of this model have roots in a rich leadership literature emphasizing a manager's need to balance a focus on tasks with a focus on people. See for example Judge, T. A., Piccolo, R. F., and Ilies, R., "The Forgotten Ones? The Validity of Consideration and Initiating Structure in Leadership Research," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2004, 89(1), 36–51. The addition of energizing change was proposed by Yukl, G., Gordon, A., and Taber, T., in "A Hierarchical Taxonomy of Leadership Behavior: Integrating a Half Century of Behavior Research," Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 2002, 9(1), 15–32.
[101] "Jobs at Intel—USA—Compensation and Benefits," www.intel.com/jobs/usa/bencomp/bonus/htm.
[102] Sekula, R. D., "Air Superiority: How Colleen Barrett Builds a Culture of Comfort, Friendliness and High-Flying Spirit to Fuel Growth at Southwest Airlines," Smart Business Network, www.sbnonline.com/Local/Article/10596/71/0/Air_superiority.aspx, January 2007.
[103] Ibid.
[104] Fishman, 4.
[105] Ibid., 5.
[106] Florida, 3–4.
[107] Walumbwa, F. O., and others, "Authentic Leadership: Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Measure," Journal of Management, February 2008, 34(1), 95–97.
[108] Davis, J. H., Schoorman, F. D., Mayer, R. C., and Tan, H. H., "The Trusted General Manager and Business Unit Performance: Empirical Evidence of a Competitive Advantage," Strategic Management Journal, 2000, 21, 573.
[109] Bass, B. M., Avolio, B. J., Jung, D. I., and Berson, Y., "Predicting Unit Performance by Assessing Transformational and Transactional Leadership," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2003, 88(2), 215.
[110] Ibid., 216.
[111] The manager effectiveness items in our 2010 global workforce study yield a single coherent manager performance factor with high internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha of 0.97). Subsequent factor analysis allocated items to four sub-components of the overall performance factor. The grouping that resulted aligned closely to the executing tasks, developing people, energizing change, and authenticity and trust elements. Cronbach's alphas in each case were high: 0.91 for executing tasks, 0.88 for developing people, 0.92 for energizing change, and 0.89 for authenticity and trust. We repeated the analysis separately for each of the twenty-two countries. In all cases, the four subcomponents were replicated, indicating that the conceptualization of manager behaviors into these four areas largely transcends country and cultural boundaries. One factor, developing people, had an element we believe aligns more intuitively with deal delivery. So, for ease of discussion, we have separated out delivering the deal as a distinct element of the model.
[112] We took a close look at the variations in how employees across twenty-two countries experience the performance of their immediate managers. Using an index of items chosen from those in Table 3.1, we calculated manager effectiveness scores by country. The results are shown in the following table.
[113] Ellinger, A. D., Watkins, K. E., and Bostrom, R. P., "Managers as Facilitators of Learning in Learning Organizations," Human Resource Development Quarterly, Summer 1999, 10(2), 112.
[114] Hamel, G., and Breen, B., The Future of Management, Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2007, 60.
[115] Sendjaya, S., and Sarros, J. C., "Servant Leadership: Its Origin, Development, and Application in Organizations," Journal of Leadership and Organization Studies, 2002, 9(2), 59.
[116] The Fallacy of the Player-Coach Model, The Boston Consulting Group, Inc. 2006.
[117] Redefining the Role of the Manager in the 21st Century Organization, Towers Perrin, presentation of a Web cast to the Human Capital Institute, November 6, 2008.
[118] Turmel, W., "I Don't Want to Be a Manager! View from the Middle," www.management-issues.com/2007/5/14/opinion/i-don't-want-to-be-a-manager.asp, May 14, 2007.
[119] Bingham, T., and Galagan, P., "Doing Good While Doing Well," Training + Development, June 2008, 33.
[120] Cincinnatus was a Roman leader who, after losing a political battle, was forced to retire to his farm. In about 458 BC, the Romans found themselves at war with the Aequians, who had surrounded the Roman army in the Alban Hills. Cincinnatus was plowing his field when a group of senators informed him he had been appointed dictator for six months so he could defend Rome against its enemy. Cincinnatus took the job and defeated the Aequi. He then gave up the title of dictator sixteen days after it had been granted and returned to his farm. http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/rulersleaderskings/p/Cincinnatus.htm.
[121] Towers Perrin, Redefining the Role of the Manager in the 21st Century Organization, Webcast.
[122] Hysong, S. J., "The Role of Technical Skill in Perceptions of Managerial Performance," Journal of Management Development, 2008, 27(3), 276.
[123] Blanthorne, C., Bhamornsiri, S., and Guinn, R., "Are Technical Skills Still Important?" The CPA Journal, www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/2005/305/essentials/p64.htm, March 2005.
[124] Laborde, S. A., and Lee, J. A, "Skills Needed for Promotion in the Nursing Profession," Journal of Nursing Administration, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11006785, September 2000, 1.
[125] Faria, J. R., "An Economic Analysis of the Peter and Dilbert Principles," Working Paper No. 101, School of Finance and Economics, University of Technology, Sydney, 6.
[126] Roberts, K., and Biddle, J., "The Transition into Management by Scientists and Engineers: A Misallocation or Efficient Use of Human Resources?" Human Resource Management, Winter 1994, 33(4), 573.
[127] Van Vugt, M., Hogan, R., and Kaiser, R. B., "Leadership, Followership, and Evolution: Some Lessons From the Past," American Psychologist, April 2008, 63(3), 190.
[128] Anderson, C., John, O. P., Keltner, D., and Kring, A. M., "Who Attains Social Status? Effects of Personality and Physical Attractiveness in Social Groups," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2001, 81(1), 121.
[129] Ibid., 122.
[130] Ibid., 125–126.
[131] Organization and Operations Results—U.S. Human Capital Effectiveness Report 2009/2010, Saratoga, a service offering of PricewaterhouseCoopers, LLP, 5.
[132] Gittell, J. H., "Supervisory Span, Relational Coordination and Flight Departure Performance: A Reassessment of Postbureaucracy Theory," Organization Science, July–August 2001, 12(4), 468.
[133] Evslin, T., Fractals of Change: The Flattening of Almost Everything #1: Organizations, http://blog.tomevslin.com/2005/02/the_flattening_.html.
[134] Ibid.
[135] Gittell, 473, 475–476.
[136] Gittell, 479.
[137] Doran, D., and others, Impact of the Manager's Span of Control on Leadership and Performance, Canadian Health Services Research Foundation, September 2004, 2, 14–16.
[138] Ibid., 24.
[139] Ibid., iv, 3.
[140] Hechanova-Alampay, R., and Beehr, T. A., "Empowerment, Span of Control, and Safety Performance in Work Teams After Workforce Reduction," Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2001, 6(4), 280.
[141] Hagel, J., Brown, J. S., and Davison, L., "Talent Is Everything," The Conference Board Review, www.tcbreview.com/talent-is-everything.php, May/June 2009, 6.
[142] Anderson, C., and Kilduff, G. J., "Why Do Dominant Personalities Attain Influence in Face-to-Face Groups? The Competence-Signaling Effects of Trait Dominance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2009, 96(2), 496.
[143] Dierdorff, E. C., Rubin, R. S., and Morgeson, F. P., "The Milieu of Managerial Work: An Integrative Framework Linking Work Context to Role Requirements," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2009, 94(4), 973–974.
[144] Ibid., 983.
[145] Cloughley, Brian, personal communication with Tom Davenport, January 2010. Used with permission.
[146] Anderson, 2009, 500.
[147] Ibid., 501.
[148] Maslow, A. H., "A Theory of Human Motivation," Psychological Review, July 1943, 50(4), 370–396.
[149] Hodgkinson, G. P., and others, "Breaking the Frame: An Analysis of Strategic Cognition and Decision Making Under Uncertainty," Strategic Management Journal, 1999, 20, 979.
[150] Flyvbjerg, B., Eliminating Bias through Reference Class Forecasting and Good Governance, NTNU, Concept Report No. 17, Chapter 6, 92.
[151] Ibid., 102–103.
[152] Kray, L. J., Galinsky, A. D., and Wong, E. M., "Thinking Within the Box: The Relational Processing Style Elicited by Counterfactual Mind-Sets," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2006, 91(1), 34.
[153] Sinickas, A., "Employees Prefer Intranets to Supervisors 2 to 1," Strategic Communication Management, 13(6), October/November 2009, 11.
[154] Schwartz, L., "5 Reasons Why Social Networking Websites Increase Productivity in the Workplace," http://blog.convergeinternational.com.au/?p=143, August 24, 2009.
[155] See, for example, Wrzesniewski, A., and Dutton, J. E., "Crafting a Job: Revisioning Employees as Active Crafters of Their Work," Academy of Management Review, 2001, 26(2), 179–201; Butler, T., and Waldroop, J., "Job Sculpting: The Art of Retaining Your Best People," Harvard Business Review, September-October 1999, 144–152; De Fruyt, F., and Mervielde, I., "RIASEC Types and Big Five Traits as Predictors of Employment Status and Nature of Employment," Personnel Psychology, 1999, 52, 701–727.
[156] See Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., and Verbeke, W., "Using the Job Demands-Resources Model to Predict Burnout and Performance," Human Resource Management, Spring 2004, 43(1), 83–104; Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., and Euwema, M. C., "Job Resources Buffer the Impact of Job Demands on Burnout," Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2005, 10(2), 170–180; Bakker, A. B., and Demerouti, E., "The Job-Demands-Resources Model: State of the Art," Journal of Managerial Psychology, 2007, 22(3), 309–328; Bakker, A. B., Hakanen, J. J., Demerouti, E., and Xanthopoulou, D., "Job Resources Boost Work Engagement, Particularly When Job Demands are High," Journal of Educational Psychology, 2007, 99(2), 274–284.
[157] Gosling, J., and Mintzberg, H., "The Five Minds of a Manager," Harvard Business Review, Reprint R0311C, November 2003, 7.
[158] Adapted from Langfred, C. W., and Moye, N. A., "Effects of Task Autonomy on Performance: An Extended Model Considering Motivational, Informational, and Structural Mechanisms," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2004, 89(6), 943.
[159] Hall, A. T., and others, "Relationships Between Felt Accountability as a Stressor and Strain Reactions: The Neutralizing Role of Autonomy Across Two Studies," Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2006, 11(1), 94–95.
[160] Moss, S., Ritossa, D., and Ngu, S., "The Effect of Follower Regulatory Focus and Extraversion on Leadership Behavior: The Role of Emotional Intelligence," Journal of Individual Differences, 2006, 27(2), 93.
[161] Grant, A. M., and others, "Impact and the Art of Motivation Maintenance: The Effects of Contact with Beneficiaries on Persistence Behavior," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 2007, 103, 58.
[162] Bond, F. W., and Flaxman, P. E., "The Ability of Psychological Flexibility and Job Control to Predict Learning, Job Performance, and Mental Health," Journal of Organizational Behavior, November 2006, 26(123), 125.
[163] O'Brien, J. M., "Zappos Knows How to Kick It," http://money.cnn.com/2009/01/15/news/companies/Zappos_best_companies_obrien.fortune/index.htm, January 22, 2009.
[164] Ibid.
[165] http://about.zappos.com/our-unique-culture/zappos-core-values/deliver-wow-through-service.
[166] O'Brien.
[167] Wrzesniewski, A., and Dutton, J. E., "Crafting a Job: Revisioning Employees as Active Crafters of Their Work," Academy of Management Review, 2001, 26(2), 191.
[168] Ibid., 192.
[169] Bakker, A. B., and Demerouti, E., "The Job Demands-Resources Model: State of the Art," Journal of Managerial Psychology, 2007, 22(3), 322.
[170] Wrzesniewski, 183.
[171] Navin, Peter, personal communication with Tom Davenport, March 2010. Used with permission.
[172] Letzring, T. D., "The Good Judge of Personality: Characteristics, Behaviors, and Observer Accuracy," Journal of Research in Personality, 2008, 42, 929.
[173] Nicholson, N., "Seven Deadly Syndromes of Management and Organization: The View from Evolutionary Psychology," Managerial and Decision Economics, 1998, 19, 419.
[174] Pond, R., "My View: Cisco's Councils and Boards," http://blogs.cisco.com/news/comments/my_view?ciscos_councils_and_boards/, August 26, 2009.
[175] Chambers, J., "The World According to Chambers," www.economist.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?story_id=14303574, August 27, 2009.
[176] Nicholson, 419.
[177] "Leadership at Cisco, Part 2: A Manager Monday CCrit," http://noccrit.com./steveblog/2009/07/leadership-at-cisco-part-2-a-manager-monday-ccrit/, July 13, 2009.
[178] Whitney, L., "Xerox CEO Anne Mulcahy to Retire," http://news.cnet.com/8301–1001_3–10236443–92.html, May 21, 2009.
[179] Bryant, A., "Xerox's New Chief Tries to Redefine Its Culture," www.nytimes.com/2010/02/21/business/21xerox.html, February 21, 2010.
[180] Wageman, R., "How Leaders Foster Self-Managing Team Effectiveness: Design Choices Versus Hands-on Coaching," Organization Science, September–October 2001, 12(5), 562–563.
[181] Ibid., 565–566.
[182] Ibid., 568.
[183] Ibid., 567, 570.
[184] 2008 Contact Center Operations Report, International Customer Management Institute, p. 18.
[185] Ibid., 19.
[186] Hagel, J., Capturing the Real Value of Offshoring in Asia, Working Paper, 2004, 6.
[187] Ibid., 5–6.
[188] Ibid., 6.
[189] Televised speech delivered April 18, 1977.
[190] Lakoff, G., and Johnson, M., Metaphors We Live By, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1980, 156.
[191] The New Employment Deal: How Far, How Fast and How Enduring, Towers Watson, 2010.
[192] Frasch, K., "Leadership: Ripe for Change," Human Resources Executive, September 2002, 61.
[193] O'Keeffe, Erin, personal communication with Tom Davenport, May 2009. Used with permission.
[194] Davenport, T. O., Human Capital: What It Is and Why People Invest It, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999, 146, 149.
[195] Higgins, M. C., and Thomas, D. A., "Constellations and Careers: Toward Understanding the Effects of Multiple Developmental Relationships," Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2001, 22, 240.
[196] Ibid., 243.
[197] Sparrowe, R. T., and Liden, R. C., "Process and Structure in Leader-Member Exchange," Academy of Management Review, 1997, 22(2), 541.
[198] "Cisco Systems Announces New Organizational Structure—Eleven Technology Groups Formed to Replace Line of Business Structure," Cisco Systems press release, http://newsroom.cisco.com/dlls/corp_082301b.html, August 23, 2001.
[199] Benko, C., and Weisberg, A., "Implementing a Corporate Career Lattice: The Mass Career Customization Model," Strategy & Leadership, 2007, 35(5), 32. For a discussion of lattice and ladder career issues, see also BizWiseTV episode 14, www.cisco.com/en/US/solutions/ns340/ns339/ns638/ns915/html_BWTV/bwtv_episode_14.html.
[200] Ibid., 32.
[201] Ibid., 35.
[202] Monaghan, Susan, personal communication with Tom Davenport, April 2010. Used with permission.
[203] "The New Face of Recruiting in a Changing Marketplace," Conference Board, People Solutions 2001, November 28, 2001. Used with permission.
[204] Ellinger, A. D., Watkins, K. E., and Bostrom, R. P., "Managers as Facilitators of Learning in Learning Organizations," Human Resource Development Quarterly, Summer 1999, 10(2), 115, 120.
[205] "Managers of Tomorrow: Setting a New Standard," 2009 World of Work Topic Report, Randstad, 2009, 3.
[206] Gurven, M., Kaplan, H., and Gutierrez, M., "How Long Does It Take to Become Proficient? Implications for the Evolution of Extended Development and Long Life Span," Journal of Human Evolution, 2006, 51, 467.
[207] Dweck, C. S., "Can Personality Be Changed? The Role of Beliefs in Personality and Change," paper based on keynote address delivered at the annual conference of the Association for Psychological Science, Washington, DC, 2007, 5.
[208] Ibid., 3.
[209] Heslin, P. A., Latham, G. P., and VandeWalle, D., "The Effect of Implicit Person Theory on Performance Appraisals," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2005, 90(5), 843.
[210] Heslin, P. A., VandeWalle, D., and Latham, G. P., "Keen to Help? Managers' Implicit Person Theories and Their Subsequent Employee Coaching," Personnel Psychology, 2006, 59, 883.
[211] Dweck, C. S., Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Ballantine, 2006, 72, 178, 198.
[212] Dweck, 2007, 7.
[213] Ibid., 9, 10.
[214] Mike, B., and Slocum, J. W., "Slice of Reality: Changing Culture at Pizza Hut and Yum! Brands, Inc.," Organizational Dynamics, 2003, 32(4), 322–324.
[215] Ibid., 324–325.
[216] Bryant, A., "At Yum Brands, Rewards for Good Work," www.nytimes.com/2009/07/12/business/12corner.html, July 11, 2009.
[217] Mike, 327.
[218] Yum! Brands, Inc., Yum! Brands 2009 Annual Customer Mania Report.
[219] Reward Challenges and Changes—Top Line Results, Towers Perrin, 2007, 35.
[220] Nicholson, N., "Seven Deadly Syndromes of Management and Organization: The View from Evolutionary Psychology," Managerial and Decision Economics, 1998, 19, 415.
[221] Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., and Vohs, K. D., "Bad Is Stronger Than Good," Review of General Psychology, 2001, 5(4), 323.
[222] Ibid., 329.
[223] Bono, J. E., Foldes, H. J., Vinson, G., and Muros, J. P., "Workplace Emotions: The Role of Supervision and Leadership," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2007, 92(5), 1358.
[224] Ibid., 1364.
[225] Bandura, A., Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, New York: Freeman, 1997, 3.
[226] Ibid., 116–117.
[227] Ibid., 125.
[228] Ibid., 136.
[229] Findley, H. M., Giles, W. F., and Mossholder, K. W., "Performance Appraisal Process and System Facets: Relationships With Contextual Performance," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000, 85(4), 635.
[230] Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Csikszentmihalyi, I. S. (Eds.), Optimal Experience: Psychological Studies of Flow in Consciousness, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988, 30.
[231] Chatzkel, J. L., Knowledge Capital: How Knowledge-Based Enterprises Really Get Built, Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2003, 235.
[232] Towers Watson analysis.
[233] Monaghan, Susan, personal communication with Tom Davenport, April 2010. Used with permission.
[234] The New Employment Deal: How Far, How Fast and How Enduring, Towers Watson, 2010.
[235] Ibid.
[236] Csikszentmihalyi, M., Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, New York: HarperPerennial, 1990, 16.
[237] Shaw, J. D., and others, "Reactions to Merit Pay Increases: A Longitudinal Test of a Signal Sensitivity Perspective," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2003, 88(3), 538.
[238] Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., Bommer, W. H., and Tetrick, L. E., "The Role of Fair Treatment and Rewards in Perceptions of Organizational Support and Leader-Member Exchange," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2002, 87(3), 590.
[239] Eisenberger, R., and others, "Reciprocation of Perceived Organizational Support," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2001, 86(1), 42–43.
[240] Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., and Sowa, D., "Perceived Organizational Support," Journal of Applied Psychology, 1986, 71(3), 500, 504.
[241] Rousseau, D. M., Ho, V. T., and Greenberg, J., "I-Deals: Idiosyncratic Terms in Employment Relationships," Academy of Management Review, 2006, 31(4), 978.
[242] Raja, U., Johns, G., and Ntalianis, F., "The Impact of Personality on Psychological Contracts," Academy of Management Journal, 47(3), 352, 362.
[243] Tuna, C., "Theory & Practice: Pay, Your Own Way: Firm Lets Workers Pick Salary—Big Bonus? None at All? In Throwback to '80s, Employees Make Call," http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121538266278030925.html, July 7, 2007.
[244] Lai, L., Rousseau, D. M., and Chang, K. T. T., "Idiosyncratic Deals: Coworkers as Interested Third Parties," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2009, 94(2), 552–553.
[245] O.C. Tanner 2008 Global Recognition Study.
[246] Ashby, F. G., Isen, A. M., and Turken, A. U., "A Neuropsychological Theory of Positive Affect and Its Influence on Cognition," Psychological Bulletin, 1999, 106(3), 529, 531, 533–534.
[247] Starz, Cynthia, personal communication with Tom Davenport, March 2010. Used with permission.
[248] Reward Challenges and Changes—Top Line Results, Towers Perrin, 2007.
[249] Pfeffer, J., "Sins of Commission," The Conference Board Review, July/August 2007, 34.
[250] Towers Watson analysis.
[251] Pfeffer, 35.
[252] DuBois, W.E.B., address on his 90th birthday to his newborn great-grandson, 1958.
[253] Niebuhr, R., The Serenity Prayer, 1943.
[254] Bandura, A., Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, New York: Freeman, 1997, 459–460.
[255] Schraeder, M., Swamidass, P. M., and Morrison, R., "Employee Involvement, Attitudes and Reactions to Technology Changes," Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 2006, 12(3), 93–96.
[256] Jimmieson, N. L., Terry, D. J., and Callan, V. J., "A Longitudinal Study of Employee Adaptation to Organizational Change: The Role of Change-Related Information and Change-Related Self-Efficacy," Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2004, 9(1), 25.
[257] Gosling, J., and Mintzberg, H., "The Five Minds of a Manager," Harvard Business Review, Reprint R0311C, November 2003, 8.
[258] Reed, J., and Love, S., "Army Developing Master Resiliency Training," www.army.mil/-news/2009/08/05/25494-army-developing-master-resiliency-training/, August 5, 2009.
[259] Antonelli, K., "Army Turns to Resilience Training," www.allmilitary.com/board/viewtopic.php?id=26968, December 22, 2009.
[260] Luthans, F., Vogelgesang, G. R., and Lester, P. B., "Developing the Psychological Capital of Resiliency," Human Resource Development Review, March 2006, 5(1), 28.
[261] Fiveash, K., "HP Imposes Staff Wage Cuts—Mark Hurd Lowers the Floor to Save Workers," www.theregister.co.uk/2009/02/19/hp_pay_cuts/print.html, February 19, 2009.
[262] Cost-Cutting Strategies in the Downturn—A Delicate Balancing Act, Towers Perrin, May 2009, 3–4.
[263] Herold, D. M., Fedor, D. B., and Caldwell, S. D., "Beyond Change Management: A Multilevel Investigation of Contextual and Personal Influences on Employees' Commitment to Change," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2007, 92(4), 943.
[264] Wanberg, C. R., and Banas, J. T., "Predictors and Outcomes of Openness to Changes in a Reorganizing Workplace," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000, 85(1), 134.
[265] Richardson, G. E., "The Metatheory of Resilience and Resiliency," Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2002, 58(3), 312.
[266] Greenfield, H., "Culture Crash: A Lehman Brothers Insider Reveals Why the Firm's Best Traits Turned Out to Be Its Worst," The Conference Board Review, Fall 2009, 63–64.
[267] Ibid., 64.
[268] This statement, or one like it, has been attributed to Charles Darwin, an attribution many scholars dispute. It has also been traced back to Clarence Darrow, of Scopes monkey trial fame, quoted in Improving the Quality of Life for the Black Elderly: Challenges and Opportunities: Hearing Before the Select Committee on Aging, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, first session, September 25, 1987 (1988). We won't try to sort through the attribution tangles. We simply suggest that it expresses a sensible way of thinking about the importance of adaptability.
[269] Greenberg, A., "When Google Grows Up," www.forbes.com/2008/01/11/google-carr-computing-tech-enter-cx_ag_0111computing.html, January 11, 2008.
[270] Tierney, P., and Farmer, S. M., "The Pygmalion Process and Employee Creativity," Journal of Management, 2004, 30(3), 426.
[271] Ibid., 428.
[272] Janssen, O., "The Joint Impact of Perceived Influence and Supervisor Supportiveness on Employee Innovative Behaviour," Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, December 2005, 78, 578.
[273] Burke, C. S., and others, "Understanding Team Adaptation: A Conceptual Analysis and Model," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2006, 91(6), 1189–1190.
[274] Ibid., 1201–1202.
[275] Presenteeism means coming to work in spite of illness and performing below typical levels.
[276] Osterweil, N., "Heartless Bosses Create Coronary-Prone Workers," MedPage Today, www.medpagetoday.com/Cardiology/AcuteCoronarySyndrome/1991?pfc=101&spc=230, October 25, 2005.
[277] Ischemic heart disease (ischemia) refers to a condition of reduced blood flow to the heart, usually occurring as a result of coronary atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), but possibly resulting from other causes of coronary vascular resistance. The reduced flow of oxygen-rich blood may cause cardiac dysfunction, which can manifest itself as angina, or severe chest pain.
[278] Nyberg, A., and others, "Managerial Leadership and Ischaemic Heart Disease Among Employees: The Swedish WOLF Study," Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 2009, 66, 54.
[279] Ibid., 53.
[280] Loeppke, R., and others, "Health and Productivity as a Business Strategy: A Multiemployer Study," Journal of Organizational and Environmental Medicine, April 2009, 51(4), 411.
[281] Ibid., 423.
[282] Nissen, Dale, personal communication with Stephen Harding, March 2010. Used with permission.
[283] Coy, Geraldine, personal communication with Stephen Harding, March 2010. Used with permission.
[284] Adams, D., Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987.
[285] Colquitt, J. A., Scott, B. A., and LePine, J. A., "Trust, Trustworthiness, and Trust Propensity: A Meta-Analytic Test of Their Unique Relationships With Risk Taking and Job Performance," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2007, 92(4), 910–911.
[286] Dirks, K. T., and Ferrin, D. L., "Trust in Leadership: Meta-Analytic Findings and Implications for Research and Practice," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2002, 87(4), 616.
[287] Drucker, P. F., Managing the Non-Profit Organization: Practices and Principles, New York: HarperCollins, 1990, 19.
[288] Walumbwa, F. O., and others, "Authentic Leadership: Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Measure," Journal of Management, 2008, 34(1), 95–96.
[289] Avolio, B., and others, "Unlocking the Mask: A Look at the Process by Which Authentic Leaders Impact Follower Attitudes and Behaviors," The Leadership Quarterly, 2004, 15, 806.
[290] Zak, P. J., and Nadler, A., Using Brains to Create Trust: A Manager's Toolbox, Claremont, CA: Center for Neuroeconomics Studies and Department of Economics, Claremont Graduate University, 2009, 4.
[291] 2009 Edelman Trust Barometer, Edelman, 2009, 12.
[292] Dirks, 2002, 614, 619.
[293] "11 Facts about Hurricane Katrina," www.dosomething.org/tipsandtools/11-facts-about-hurricane-katrina.
[294] Zander, R. S., and Zander, B., The Art of Possibility, New York: Penguin, 2000, 89.
[295] Dirks, K. T., "Trust in Leadership and Team Performance: Evidence from NCAA Basketball," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000, 85(6), 1009.
[296] Ibid.
[297] Baker, P., "How Obama Came to Plan for 'Surge' in Afghanistan," www.nytimes.com/2009/12/06/world/asia/06reconstruct.html, December 6, 2009.
[298] Colquitt, J. A., "On the Dimensionality of Organizational Justice: A Construct Validation of a Measure," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2001, 86(3), 389.
[299] Choi, J., "Event Justice Perceptions and Employees' Reactions: Perceptions of Social Entity Justice as a Moderator," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2008, 93(3), 525.
[300] White, D., "Eliot Spitzer, Attorney General & New York Governor," http://usliberals.about.com/od/stategovernors/p/ElliotSpitzer.htm.
[301] Spitzer, E., "Strong Law Enforcement Is Good for the Economy," commentary for The Wall Street Journal, www.happinessonline.org/InfectiousGreed/p39.htm, April 5, 2005.
[302] Hakim, D., and Rashbaum, W. K., "Spitzer Is Linked to Prostitution Ring," www.nytimes.com/2008/03/10/nyregion/10cnd-spitzer.html, March 10, 2008.
[303] Koerwer, V. S., "Featured Interview Sherron Watkins, Former Vice President for Corporate Development of Enron," www.allbusiness.com/educational-services/business-schools-computer/290768–1.html, June 22, 2004.
[304] Fowler, T., "Enron's Implosion Was Anything but Sudden," www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/special/enron/2655409.html, December 20, 2005.
[305] Zak, P. J., "Values and Value: Moral Economics," Gruter Institute Project on Values and Free Enterprise, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=927485, 2007, 8.
[306] Gardner, W. L., and others, "Can You See the Real Me? A Self-Based Model of Authentic Leader and Follower Development," The Leadership Quarterly, 2005, 16, 352.
[307] Koerwer.
[308] Zak, P. J., The Neuroeconomics of Trust, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=764944, August 2005, 16–17.
[309] Zak, P. J., Stanton, A. A., and Ahmadi, S. "Oxytocin Increases Generosity in Humans," PLoS ONE, www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0001128, November 2007, Issue 11, 4.
[310] Zak, 2009, 5.
[311] Ibid.
[312] Shore, L. M., Tetrick, L. E., Lynch, P., and Barksdale, K., "Social and Economic Exchange: Construct Development and Validation," Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2006, 36(4), 849.
[313] Heath, C., "On the Social Psychology of Agency Relationships: Lay Theories of Motivation Overemphasize Extrinsic Incentives," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, April 1999, 78(1), 58.
[314] Holtz, B. C., and Harold, C. M., "When Your Boss Says No! The Effects of Leadership Style and Trust on Employee Reactions to Managerial Explanations," Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 2008, 81, 781.
[315] Ibid., 793.
[316] Walumbwa, 104.
[317] Goleman, D., Emotional Intelligence, New York: Bantam Books, 1995, 43.
[318] Goleman, D., Social Intelligence, New York: Bantam Books, 2006, 83.
[319] Goleman, Social Intelligence, 84.
[320] See for example Bouchard, T. J., and McGue, M., "Genetic and Environmental Influences on Human Psychological Differences," Journal of Neurobiology, 2003, 54, 23, and Steen, R. G., DNA & Destiny: Nature & Nurture in Human Behavior, New York: Plenum Press, 1996, 171.
[321] Seligman, M. E. P., What You Can Change ... and What You Can't, New York: Fawcett, 1993, 6.
[322] Steen, 18–19.
[323] Bringing Policies to Life: The Vital Role of Front Line Managers in People Management, Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, 2003, 6.
[324] Evolving Priorities and the Future of HR Service Delivery, Towers Perrin, 2009, 10.
[325] O'Keeffe, Erin, personal communication with Tom Davenport, May 2009. Used with permission.
[326] Heslin, P. A., Latham, G. P., and VandeWalle, D., "The Effect of Implicit Person Theory on Performance Appraisals," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2005, 90(5), 851–852.