NINE
A Crash Course in Generating Creative
Ideas: Group Methods
In general, a group of people will produce more ideas than a single individual. Thus, you should consider using group methods whenever possible. Group methods are indicated when the problem is important, you have sufficient time, and the participation of individuals is needed to increase acceptance of solutions and problem ownership.
Of the group techniques described in this chapter, four also can be used by individuals: the KJ method, picture stimulation, semantic intuition, and object stimulation. However, this flexibility does not necessarily mean they will produce better ideas. The real measure of an idea generation technique is the creative capacity of the people who use it.
The descriptions that follow are presented in a format similar to that used in Chapter 8:
1.Relevant background information and comments
2.Step-by-step description
3.Sample problem
However, no sample problems are provided in instances where pure brainstorming is used. Some techniques rely on only verbal idea generation from group members, whereas others also manipulate various problem elements—for example, the use of related and unrelated problem stimuli. As a result, any sample ideas would have to reflect ideas of hypothetical individuals rather than the mechanics of a technique.
The techniques are presented alphabetically within the two broad categories of brainstorming and brainwriting. Brainstorming is a term familiar to most people, although it typically is used as a substitute word for “idea generation.” As conceived originally by advertising executive Alex Osborn, brainstorming is applied more properly as a process used to define (frame) problems and to generate, evaluate, and implement ideas. Brainwriting probably is less well known and refers to the silent, written generation of ideas in a group. In general, brainwriting methods will result in a greater quantity of ideas than brainstorming methods.
BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUES
Brainstorming techniques refer to methods in which the primary idea generation method is verbal interaction among group members. The most productive brainstorming groups are those in which group members conform to the principle of deferred judgment—that is, effective brainstorming groups separate idea generation from evaluation. The assumption is that the greater the quantity of ideas generated, the greater the probability that one will be found capable of resolving the challenge.
Force-Fit Game
This method, developed by German engineer Helmut Schlicksupp, is based on the principle of forced relationships in which stimuli are combined to provoke ideas.
Steps
1.Form two groups (A and B) of three to eight people each.
2.Assign one person (not a member of either group) to function as a referee and recorder.
3.The game begins when a member of Group A suggests an idea remote from the problem (or an impractical idea).
4.Group B has two minutes to develop a practical solution to this idea.
5.The referee writes down each solution as it is proposed.
6.The referee awards Group B one point if he or she judges the group was successful in developing a practical solution; if he or she determines the group was unsuccessful, Group A receives the point.
7.Group B next suggests a remote or impractical idea and Group A has two minutes to develop a practical solution to this idea. The referee writes down the solution and awards Group A one point if it is successful in developing a practical idea or Group B one point if Group A was unsuccessful.
8.The game continues for thirty to forty minutes and the group with the most points is declared the winner.
Gordon/Little Technique
Although it may seem contradictory, awareness of a problem can hinder idea generation. Information about a problem obviously is required to achieve a solution; however, it also can cause people to focus on obvious solutions—perhaps because of a human tendency to stereotype problems and solutions. To counter this tendency to focus on the obvious, creativity consultant William Gordon developed this brainstorming variation, which temporarily suspends information from the problem solvers. Although originally intended for problems known only to group facilitators, I have found that it still can be used successfully if group members are told to forget the problem temporarily and participate in a creative-thinking exercise. (Yes, this is somewhat manipulative, but so are all idea generation methods!)
Steps
1.The leader describes an abstract definition of the problem and asks the group to generate solutions.
2.After the group generates solutions for several minutes, the leader introduces a slightly less abstract definition of the problem and the group generates solutions to it.
3.The leader reveals the original problem to the group and asks the group to review the solutions to the two previous problems.
4.The group members use these solutions as stimuli to generate solutions to the original problem.
Sample Problem: HMW Improve a Portable Radio?
1.The leader describes an abstract definition of the problem and asks the group to generate solutions. Problem: Think of ways to improve something. Ideas:
•Make it larger.
•Polish it.
•Add more features.
•Use more expensive parts.
•Make it smaller.
•Make it more flexible.
•Make it interchangeable.
2.After the group generates solutions for several minutes, the leader introduces a slightly less abstract definition of the problem and the group generates solutions to it. Problem: Think of ways to improve something portable. Ideas:
•Put wheels on it.
•Make it lighter in weight.
•Make it easy to open and close.
•Have lots of pockets for accessories.
•Make it a convenient shape to store in different places.
•Make it easy to pick up.
•Remove features or parts.
•Simplify its operation.
3.The leader reveals the original problem to the group and asks the group to review the solutions to the two previous problems.
4.The group members use these solutions as stimuli to generate solutions to the original problem. Problem: HMW improve a portable radio?
•Make it out of stainless steel (from “Polish it”).
•Add a spotlight and compass (from “Add more features”).
•Make a novelty radio out of rubber so it will bend (from “Make it more flexible”).
•Design the portable radio to function as a component with a larger stereo system (from “Make it interchangeable”).
•Add storage compartments for extra batteries (from “Have lots of pockets for accessories”).
Object Stimulation
Earlier versions of this method are stimulus analysis and the focused-object technique. However, object stimulation is a blend of these methods, plus it also uses the same basic idea generation principle of unrelated stimuli. The purpose of such stimuli is to present different problem perspectives. In this instance, the unrelated stimuli are objects with no apparent relation to the problem.
Steps
1.Generate a list of concrete objects unrelated to the problem.
2.Select one of the objects and describe it in detail.
3.Use each description as a stimulus to generate ideas.
4.Write down all ideas generated.
5.Select another object and repeat steps 3 and 4.
6.Repeat step 5 until all the objects have been used.
Sample Problem: HMW Reduce the Number of Employees Who Leave Our Organization?
1.Generate a list of concrete objects unrelated to the problem.
•Telephone
•Television
•Automobile
•Microwave oven
2.Select one of the objects and describe it in detail. Television:
•Tunes in to many channels
•Can have different size screens
•Can use a remote control
•Can have a sleep timer
•Can be portable
•Has a variety of programs
•Has volume control
3.Use each description as a stimulus to generate ideas. Write down all ideas generated.
•Have weekly videoconferences with management to air problems (from “tunes in to many channels”).
•Offer a sliding-scale incentive program to retain employees (from “different size screens”).
•Have higher management meet periodically with employees from “remote” areas of the company (from “can use a remote control”).
•Allow employees to take naps during the day (from “sleep timer”).
•Allow employees to work at home (from “portable”).
4.Select another object and repeat step 3.
5.Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all the objects have been used or time expires.
Picture Stimulation
Variations of this method have been referred to as visual synectics and Battelle-Bildmappen-brainwriting. However, picture stimulation is virtually identical to object stimulation except that pictures are used as the unrelated stimuli. You can either give each group member a folder containing pictures or show a picture on an overhead projector.
One advantage of this method over object stimulation is that members are confronted with visual stimuli instead of having to imagine an object. (Of course, there would not be a disadvantage if an object is present.)
You should select pictures that contain a variety of stimuli. Don’t use pictures containing a lot of people or close-ups of people. Instead, look for pictures of cities, factories, and country scenes. National Geographic is a good magazine source. Of course, there also are many sources of pictures on the Internet as well as clip art software.
When you describe the pictures, try to include as much detail as possible. Don’t include only physical references such as “tree,” “car,” or “grass.” Instead, also include many action-oriented statements, such as “The river creates erosion in the earth.”
Steps
1.Select five to ten pictures that are unrelated to the problem.
2.Select one of the pictures and describe it in detail.
3.Use each description as a stimulus to generate ideas.
4.Write down all ideas generated.
5.Select another picture and repeat steps 3 and 4.
6.Repeat step 5 until all the pictures have been used.
Sample Problem: HMW Sell More Floor-Care Products?
1.Select five to ten pictures that are unrelated to the problem (one picture will be used for this example).
2.Select one of the pictures and describe it in detail. Picture: a horseshoe magnet.
•Attracts metal
•Is made of metal
•Is shaped like a horseshoe
•Has two sides
3.Use each description as a stimulus to generate ideas.
4.Write down all ideas generated.
•Attracts metal. Put metallic flakes on the package to attract customers.
•Is made of metal. Make a bright, shiny metal package.
•Is shaped like a horseshoe. Package the product in a horseshoe-shaped package using the theme of a “dirt magnet.”
•Has two sides. Put a cleaning product in one side of the package and a wax or shining product in the other side.
5.Select another picture and repeat steps 3 and 4.
6.Repeat step 5 until all the pictures have been used.
Semantic Intuition
Semantic intuition reverses the normal procedure when an invention is created. Instead of assigning a name to an invention, semantic intuition creates a name and then produces an invention (or idea) based on it. One advantage of this method is that it uses related problem elements but combines them in ways that help produce different problem perspectives.
Steps
1.Generate two sets of words related to major problem elements.
2.Select a word from one set and combine it with a word from the other.
3.Use the combination to generate an idea and write it down.
4.Repeat steps 2 and 3 until you have examined several combinations.
Sample Problem: HMW Encourage Employees to Stop Throwing Litter on Company Property?
1.Generate two sets of words related to major problem elements.
Things Involved |
|
with Employees |
with Litter |
Working |
Paper |
Playing |
Glass |
Breaks |
Metal |
Bosses |
Throwing |
Pay |
Trash cans |
Benefits |
Wood |
Retirement |
Picking it up |
2.Select a word from one set and combine it with a word from the other.
3.Use the combination to generate an idea and write it down.
•Require all employees to spend a certain amount of time each week picking up litter (from “working-paper”).
4.Repeat steps 2 and 3 until you have examined several combinations.
•Set up ball-throwing contests during lunch hour and ask participants to pick up litter around them (from “playing-throwing”).
•Require employees to pick up at least one piece of litter during their breaks (from “breaks-paper”).
•Require bosses to pick up litter to set a good example (from “bosses–picking it up”).
•Set up a recycling center that pays employees a premium price for litter they sort and turn in (from “pay–picking it up”).
SIL Method
This technique was developed at the Battelle Institute in Frankfurt, Germany. The letters SIL represent a German acronym that translates in English as “successive integration of problem elements.” It differs from most idea generation methods in that ideas are generated progressively by integrating previous ideas.
Although individuals initially generate ideas in writing, the method is not really a brainwriting technique. It was classified as a brainstorming procedure because the primary mechanism for generating ideas relies on verbal interactions.
Steps
1.A group of four to seven people silently writes down ideas.
2.Two of the group members read one of their ideas aloud.
3.The remaining group members try to integrate the ideas just read into one idea.
4.A third member reads an idea and the group attempts to integrate it with the one formed in step 3.
5.This process of reading and integrating ideas continues until all the ideas have been read and integrated.
Split-Brain Comparisons
This technique is based roughly on the concepts of analytical and creative thinking. These concepts often are compared rather simplistically with left- and right-brain thinking functions. That is, the left-brain hemisphere uses linear, logical, and analytical thought processes, while the right deals more with intuitive, holistic, and creative thought processes. In brain anatomy, the bundle of nerve fibers that joins these hemispheres is known as the corpus callosum.
The split-brain comparison technique generates ideas by designing group interactions as a metaphor of brain functioning and physiology. That is, it juxtaposes ideas from creative and analytical groups with an integrating group activity known as corpus callosum thinking.
Steps
1.Divide a group of twelve to fourteen people into two subgroups of primarily analytical and primarily creative-thinking people simply by asking them to classify themselves as predominately creative or analytical. One group should contain all analytical thinkers and one all creative thinkers. The groups should be as equal in size as possible. If the creative and analytical thinkers cannot be divided equally, use an approximate division.
2.Physically separate the two groups and ask them to generate ideas to solve a problem. Instruct the analytical group to consider only logical ideas and the creative group to consider only wild, off-the-wall ideas.
3.Terminate brainstorming after about twenty to thirty minutes.
4.Combine individuals from both groups to form one large group (the corpus callosum group).
5.Instruct the corpus callosum group to select one idea from the analytical group and attempt to integrate it with one idea from the creative group to form a new idea or modification. Continue this activity using other idea combinations until they have generated a sufficient number of ideas.
Sample Problem: HMW Improve a Flashlight?
Logical Ideas
•Use a sturdier switch.
•Use a nonbreakable lens.
•Cushion the case.
•Install a battery-life indicator.
•Make it waterproof.
Off-the-Wall Ideas
•The flashlight turns on automatically when it gets dark.
•The light brightens or dims as you wish it.
•You can lengthen the flashlight by pulling on it.
•The size of the lens increases or decreases in response to how much light there is in the environment.
•Throwing the flashlight in the air causes it to turn on automatically.
•The light brightens or dims depending on how much pressure you apply on the switch (from “Use a sturdier switch” and “The light brightens or dims as you wish it”).
•Battery life can be increased by spinning the flashlight—the spinning motion activates a small generator inside the flashlight (from “Install a battery-life indicator” and “Throwing the flashlight in the air causes it to turn on automatically”).
•Make a glow-in-the-dark case. Squeezing on the case causes it to change different colors (from “Cushion the case” and “The size of the lens increases or decreases in response to how much light there is in the environment”).
Trans-Disciplinary Analogy
The trans-disciplinary analogy (TDA) was developed by Henry Andersen, a former marketing manager at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries America, Inc. It is based on the notion that new ideas can emerge from anyone at any time. In this regard, Andersen developed the Diamond IdeaGroup, the “multidisciplinary and multinational idea generating, translating, and integrating network serving organizations and individuals worldwide.” TDA is a functional translation of the Diamond Idea-Group—that is, it generates ideas by borrowing perspectives from different disciplines.
Steps
1.Form small groups of at least five people each. Each group should contain people from a variety of occupations.
2.Assign a facilitator to each group.
3.The facilitator asks each group member to select one discipline or activity of special interest to that person. This discipline or activity does not have to be represented by the person’s occupation, nor does it have to be a traditional academic discipline. It may even be some activity such as dishwashing or tree trimming. However, the person selecting a discipline or activity should have some familiarity with it.
4.Each group member selects a central concept from his or her selected discipline and the facilitator lists it on a board or flip chart.
5.After all the concepts are recorded, the group selects one concept and the individual responsible for it provides a detailed description. (For instance, in one TDA group, a ballerina selected a particular dance movement as her concept. She then described the movement in detail and even demonstrated it.)
6.The group members examine the description and use it to generate ideas. They use each description as a potential idea stimulus.
7.The group then selects another concept and repeats steps 5 and 6.
BRAINWRITING TECHNIQUES
As discussed previously, brainwriting involves the silent, written generation of ideas in a group. The basic brainstorming rule of separating generation from evaluation also applies—that is, individuals should defer judgment on their ideas until it is time to evaluate them.
Brainsketching
Most of us use visual images to generate ideas. We often sketch these ideas to help us conceptualize them. The brainsketching technique attempts to capitalize on this ability in a group situation by allowing people to compare idea sketches. This particular brainwriting method originated during a discussion in one of my creativity classes. In 1981, Jim Pickens, a student at that time, conceived brainsketching as a variation of the pin cards technique, a procedure in which idea cards are passed around a group. Brainsketching modifies this procedure by passing around idea sketches.
Steps
1.Each group member individually draws a sketch of how the problem might be solved. No talking is permitted during this activity.
2.Group members pass their drawings to the person on their right.
3.These individuals modify the original drawings or add comments.
4.This process of modifying and adding to the drawings continues for about twenty to thirty minutes.
5.The group members examine all the drawings and select a final solution or construct a final solution from parts of different sketches.
Brainwriting Pool
This is one of several brainwriting approaches developed at the Battelle Institute in Frankfurt, Germany. It is relatively easy to implement and requires little in the way of leader facilitation skills. Nevertheless, it helps to generate a large number of ideas in a short time. The physical setting consists of a group of five to eight people seated around a small table.
The steps for group members to do individually are as follows:
1.Write down four ideas on a sheet of paper.
2.Place the sheet in the center of the table (the pool) and exchange it for another one.
3.Read the ideas on the new sheet and use them to stimulate new ideas.
4.Write down any new ideas on the sheet and exchange it for a new sheet from the pool when the group member needs additional stimulation.
5.Continue writing down ideas and exchanging sheets for ten to fifteen minutes.
Collective Notebook
John Haefele of Procter & Gamble developed the collective notebook (CNB) method to generate ideas from a cross-section of employees within an organization. A major difference between it and other group idea generation methods is that the individuals do not meet face-to-face. Instead, participants write down ideas on their own and then pool them later on. Another major difference is that ideas are generated over an extended period of time, rather than submitted spontaneously in one brief time period. About ten participants usually is enough to generate a sufficient number of ideas.
Haefele created this method in the 1960s, well before the Internet, so it represents one of the first nondigital idea management processes. Of course, the basic process still can be used without the Internet. In some instances, this may be a disadvantage due to the potential for extended incubation time.
Steps
The participants:
1.Receive a notebook containing a problem statement and background information.
2.Write down at least one idea every working day for one month.
3.Develop a written summary of their ideas, including a list of their best ones.
4.Return their notebooks to a coordinator, who reviews the ideas, categorizes them, and prepares a detailed summary to submit to management.
Professor Alan Pearson of the United Kingdom suggested a variation that should increase idea quality. He recommends that after two weeks’ time, the participants exchange their notebooks with another preselected participant. They then can use these ideas to stimulate new ideas. Today, because this process is even easier with e-mail or idea management software, such exchanges might occur more frequently.
Gallery Method
This approach reverses the basic process of the brainwriting pool and pin cards techniques. Thus, instead of moving ideas around for people to examine, the gallery method moves the people around the ideas. It is based on the way people browse an art gallery to receive stimulation.
1.Sheets of flip chart paper are attached to the walls of a room (or flip charts on stands are placed around the sides of a room).
2.Group members silently write down their ideas on the sheets of paper (one sheet per person).
3.After ten to fifteen minutes of writing, the participants are given fifteen minutes to walk around, look at the other ideas, and take notes.
4.Group members silently write down any new ideas or improvements upon the ideas of others.
5.After about five to ten minutes of additional writing, the participants examine all the ideas and select the best ones.
KJ Method
The KJ method was developed by anthropology professor Jiro Kawakita when he was at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He created this method for sequential grouping and synthesis of field observations, resulting in a clearer picture of the problem as well as new hypotheses and ideas. New ideas then are triggered by complex associations among other ideas. Although there is some verbal interaction among group members, the primary idea generation mechanism is brainwriting.
Steps
1.Individuals are instructed to write down ideas on small cards, one idea per card with a goal of one hundred cards.
2.Individuals sort the cards into categories of fifty to one hundred cards, then twenty to thirty cards, then ten cards or fewer. The categories should reflect new conceptual categories. These, in turn, help break down rigid thinking and help stimulate new ideas.
3.Individuals write down any new ideas on flip chart paper. These ideas may be related or unrelated to the problem. They also may be described graphically to increase understanding. A new conceptual picture should emerge after this step.
4.Group members read aloud groups of ideas on their conceptual pictures and write down new ideas prompted by the picture or the discussion.
The KJ method has been used widely in Japan since its development decades ago. For instance, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone used it to create a twenty-year technology roadmap, developing plans for an information network system that showed the conceptual merging of telephone, facsimile, video, and data communications.
NHK Brainstorming
Although labeled a brainstorming technique, NHK brainstorming actually is a brainwriting variation. The primary idea generation process involves silent, written generation of ideas. It does, however, contain some brainstorming activities. This technique was developed by Hiroshi Takahashi, of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK), hence its name.
Steps
1.Individuals write down five ideas each on index cards (one idea per card).
2.The individuals form into groups of five.
3.Each individual explains his or her idea while the rest of the group members write down ideas that come to mind.
4.All the cards are collected and sorted into categories of related themes.
5.New groups of two or three people are formed. The groups then brainstorm ideas for the themes and write the ideas down on index cards.
6.After an hour or so, each group organizes the new ideas by themes and presents them to the larger group. (All ideas are written on a chalkboard for all to see.)
7.The participants form new groups of ten people each and brainstorm improvements regarding the ideas on the chalkboard, one idea at a time.
Nominal Group Technique
The nominal group technique (NGT) was developed by management professors Andre Delbecq and Andrew Van de Ven in 1968 as a way to systematically structure group discussions. Because there is little verbal interaction and decisions are made quantitatively, consensus can be achieved easily. NGT has all the advantages of brainwriting and also includes an idea evaluation stage. A major disadvantage is that the written ideas are not shared, thus preventing stimulation from other people’s ideas. However, new ideas can be added after the written ideas have been shared with the larger group. As with other brainwriting methods, it also could be modified and done electronically online.
Steps
1.Five to seven individuals write down their ideas without speaking.
2.Each group member orally presents one of his or her ideas without justification or elaboration. The group leader records the idea on flip chart paper (the ideas are numbered sequentially) and the next group member orally presents his or her idea. New ideas triggered by the oral presentations also may be added to the lists. This process continues until the leader has recorded the ideas—one at a time—from each group member.
3.The leader points to each idea and requests clarifying comments. No evaluation is permitted other than to eliminate duplicate ideas and to correct an idea proposer’s intended meanings.
4.Group members receive index cards and rank five to nine ideas from among those listed (ratings also can be used but require more time to tally). Group members select their favorite ideas and write down each on a separate card. They indicate the idea number sequence on the upper left-hand corner of the card. Next, each member spreads out his or her priority cards and places them in order of preference by selecting the most important, then the least important, then the most important of the remaining cards, and so forth. Finally, they record each idea’s ranking on the lower right corner.
5.The leader tallies all the rankings or ratings and presents them to the group. The group examines the results and looks for inconsistencies or peculiar patterns. The leader encourages clarification of inconsistencies and solicits any information that might help members understand an idea’s intended meaning.
6.If a final vote is needed, the procedure outlined in step 4 is followed.
Pin Cards
The pin cards method, developed by the Battelle Institute in Frankfurt, is a close cousin of the brainwriting pool. The major difference is that ideas are passed around to other group members instead of being placed in the center of a table. In this regard, the brainwriting pool may have an advantage in offering more idea anonymity than pin cards (if that is a concern). Otherwise, both procedures can generate many ideas.
Steps
Five to seven people are given a stack of sticky notes and seated around a small table.
1.Group members individually:
•Write down one idea on a note and pass it to the person on the right.
•Read the idea on each note and use it to stimulate new ideas.
•Write down any new ideas on a new note and pass it to the person on the right.
•Continue writing down ideas and passing on idea notes for ten to fifteen minutes.
2.The notes are collected and posted on a wall or arranged on a large table in logical categories for future evaluation.