EIGHT
A Crash Course in Generating Creative
Ideas: Individual Methods
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, there were relatively few books on idea generation techniques. When I was interviewed by Dun’s Review in 1979 for a cover article on creativity, the editors had trouble finding people to interview. Today, there may be almost as many creativity experts as there are companies to use them! The last several decades have seen a proliferation of books and Internet Web sites on how to generate ideas. Now the problem is deciding how to know which technique to use for the type of challenge involved.
IDEA GENERATION TECHNIQUES
There are a number of ways to classify formal techniques designed to generate ideas. (The use of the word formal means that the techniques were created with the intention of generating ideas.) Because I have written a number of books on this topic, I will use the classification scheme I have used previously. Such typologies often differ only in the labels used to describe similar components and processes, so I will not bother describing them here.
Individuals vs. Groups
The first way to classify techniques is to divide techniques into those designed for individuals and those designed for groups. The primary difference between the two is that some group methods also can be used by individuals. I say “some,” because some group methods were not developed just for groups, but just happened to be. Their developers created them with groups in mind but did not have to use groups to generate ideas. For instance, one method created for groups involves group members looking at a photograph and using what they see as stimuli to trigger ideas. However, individuals obviously could do the same. Conversely, techniques originally developed for individuals also can be used by groups.
What is important to note, however, is that all individual methods can be used by groups, but not all group methods can be used by individuals. The reason is due to how people interact while generating ideas. For instance, some group methods require individuals to write down ideas on sticky notes and pass them to other group members. Obviously, it would not make sense to do this as an individual (unless you wanted to role-play). On the other hand, any method designed for individuals can be adapted easily for use by more than one person. Only individual approaches are presented in this chapter; group methods are described in Chapter 9.
Related vs. Unrelated Stimuli
One of the most important elements of idea generation techniques in general is their use of related or unrelated challenge stimuli, or both. In this case, stimuli are the triggers we use to help prompt ideas. For instance, if I am trying to think of ways to improve a computer laptop, I first might focus on the different parts and functions and use them as the starting points for ideas. Thus, I might consider ways to make the screen adjust automatically to ambient lighting, becoming brighter as environmental lighting decreases.
Although trying to improve existing attributes of a challenge can be fruitful, it may not always produce the desired level of creativity. Some challenges require an external source of stimulation to provoke novel ideas. These unrelated stimuli are found almost anywhere. Most exist as unrelated words, pictures, or objects. To use the example of improving a computer laptop, the stimuli used for ideation might come from anything not related to the challenge. In fact, the more unrelated the stimuli, the better. Thus, to improve a laptop, I might use a car key for possible stimulation. For instance, I observe the car key and notice several electronic buttons on it. I then might think of a button to push whenever I might leave my computer alone in a public place. Pushing the button activates a motion detector that sounds an alarm if the laptop is moved before using a thumbprint keypad.
According to some research, unrelated stimuli may be more likely to yield novel ideas than related stimuli. This is because unrelated stimuli help force us divert our attention from what we already know and, most important, from what we may think we know about a challenge. The so-called truth, however, probably lies somewhere in between. Both related and unrelated stimuli can be valuable because any form of stimulus has the potential to spark novelty. So, a combination may be optimal.
Free Association vs. Forced Relationships
Another way to classify idea generation methods is in terms of how related and unrelated stimuli are used. Basic free association is the process we use to generate ideas by ourselves and with others. Specifically, we or someone else offers an idea and then we use it as a stimulus to trigger other ideas that, in turn, might help provoke even more ideas. This represents quite a natural way that our brains work for thinking of ideas: One word leads to another that leads to another, and so forth.
In contrast, the process of forced relationships involves the deliberate use of one stimulus with one or more others to provoke something new. In the laptop example used previously, the laptop is a stimulus that then is connected with a key, symbolically “forcing” or linking together both stimuli to produce a new idea—the security button feature. This idea then can be used for free association or combined with another stimulus to help create a new idea. For instance, the security button might trigger an idea for a button that automatically lowers and raises the screen. In this example, the laptop represents a related stimulus while the car key is an unrelated stimulus. Two related or two unrelated stimuli also could be used.
The techniques presented next are organized as individual and group methods. Within each of these categories, the techniques are classified as using related or unrelated stimuli and then these are listed in alphabetical order. Remember: All individual methods can be used by groups, but not all group methods can be used by individuals. The distinction between individual and group methods sometimes is a rather artificial one and should not be used literally in all cases. Specifically, if you plan to generate ideas in a group, you also should consider methods classified for individuals; sometimes, the reverse would apply, depending on whether or not a technique classified for groups requires sharing ideas with others. All of the challenge questions will be stated beginning with the phrase, “How might we . . . ?” (This phrase will be abbreviated as HMW.)
INDIVIDUAL TECHNIQUES USING RELATED STIMULI
All of these techniques are based on stimuli that somehow are related to the problem for which ideas are being generated.
Assumption Reversals
Creativity consultant Steve Grossman developed this technique to overcome a difficulty involved in dealing with logical paradoxes. This occurs when you see a contradiction between an existing and a desired problem state. For instance, a logical paradox exists if you are told to reduce your expenditures by 15 percent but increase your output by 20 percent. To overcome this paradox, you could try reversing the problem assumptions involved.
Steps
1.Write down all major problem assumptions.
2.Reverse each assumption in any way possible (don’t worry about the “correctness” of your reversals).
3.Use the reversed assumptions as stimuli and generate any ideas suggested.
Sample Problem: HMW Improve a Refrigerator?
1.Write down all major problem assumptions.
•“A refrigerator keeps food cold.”
•“Opening the door lets out cold air.”
•“A refrigerator requires electricity to operate.”
•“A refrigerator is capable of freezing some foods.”
2.Reverse each assumption in any way possible (don’t worry about the “correctness” of your reversals).
•“A refrigerator heats food.”
•“Opening the door helps retain cold air inside.”
•“A refrigerator requires no electricity.”
•“Frozen foods always melt in a freezer.”
3.Use the reversed assumptions as stimuli and generate any ideas suggested.
•Build in a small microwave oven. (“A refrigerator heats food.”)
•Opening the door triggers a burst of cold air until the door is again closed. (“Opening the door helps retain cold air inside.”)
•Have a battery-powered backup in case of brief power failures. (“A refrigerator requires no electricity.”)
•Install a timed, automatic defroster. (“Frozen foods always melt in a freezer.”)
Attribute Association Chains
I developed this technique as a modification of attribute analogy chains (described in the next section on individual techniques using unrelated stimuli). The major difference is that attribute association chains use free associations to stimulate ideas whereas attribute analogy chains use analogies.
1.List all major problem components and their subcomponents.
2.Read one of the subcomponents and write down the first word that pops into your mind (word association). This word may be entirely unrelated to the previous word.
3.Use this word association as a stimulus and think of another word that pops into your mind. Write down this word. Continue this process until you have listed a total of four or five word associations.
4.Use the word associations as stimuli and generate any ideas suggested.
Sample Problem: HMW Encourage Employees to Stop Throwing Litter on Company Property?
1.List all major problem components and subcomponents.
•People: wage and salaried employees, supervisors and nonsupervisors
•Litter: paper, glass, metal, wood
•Activities: walking, driving, sitting, standing
•Company property: streets, driveways, sidewalks, buildings, parking lots
2.Read one of the subcomponents and free-associate, with one word triggering the next one (only a few words will be used for this example).
•Supervisors: leaders, followers, people, workers, players, games
•Paper: scissors, stones, rocks, streams, water, cold, ice
•Walking: running, shoes, socks, sweat, equity
•Streets: pavement, asphalt, black, white, snow, ski
3.Use the word associations as stimuli and generate any ideas suggested.
•Create competitive games among departments, challenging them to pick up litter (from “games”).
•Have employees take walks for exercise and carry air blowers to blow trash into special receptacles (from “streams”).
•Pay employees for picking up trash (from “sweat” and “equity”).
•Place trash receptacles several inches into asphalt pavement to prevent them from being knocked over (from “asphalt”).
•Send employees of the most trash-free area on a ski vacation (from “ski”).
Exaggerated Objectives
Several idea-generation techniques generate ideas by using different problem perspectives. Although evaluation criteria generally should not be introduced until all ideas have been generated, there is at least one method that can use such criteria to an advantage. Exaggerated Objectives is such a technique. It uses criteria to help create new perspectives by “stretching” or exaggerating problem criteria.
Steps
As described by psychologist Robert Olson, the steps for this technique are:
1.List major problem criteria (objectives) that a solution should satisfy.
2.Exaggerate or stretch each criterion (there is no “correct” way to do this).
3.Use each exaggerated criterion as a stimulus to generate ideas.
Sample Problem: HMW Encourage Employees to Submit Ideas to Improve Our Company?
1.List major problem criteria (objectives) that a solution should satisfy.
•“Will cost less than $1,000 per year to administer”
•“Will result in a continual flow of ideas”
•“Will involve many personnel”
2.Exaggerate or stretch each criterion (there is no “correct” way to do this).
•“Costs less than $l,000”—exaggeration: costs over $1 billion
•“Continual flow of ideas”—exaggeration: produces no ideas
•“Involve many personnel”—exaggeration: requires no people
3.Use each exaggerated criterion as a stimulus to generate ideas.
•Costs over $1 billion—pay a bonus to people who submit a certain number of ideas, regardless of the value of the ideas.
•Produces no ideas—make raises contingent upon submitting ideas; no ideas submitted, no raise.
•Requires no people—start a company-wide public relations campaign to advertise the suggestion program.
Relational Algorithms
The relational algorithms method, developed by educator H. F Crovitz, generates ideas with unusual combinations of problem elements and relational words (prepositions). The idea is based on the creative thinking principle of forced relationships. Two parts of a problem concept are “forced” together with one or more relational words to produce unusual associations. The associations then are used to stimulate new ideas. Supposedly, these unusual combinations provoke unique problem perspectives. Crovitz suggests the following as relational words:
about
across
after
against
among
and
as
at
because
before
between
but
by
down
for
from
if
in
near
not
now
of
off
on
opposite
or
out
over
round
so
still
then
though
through
till
to
under
up
when
where
while
with
I have added the following words to the list:
along
amid
around
behind
below
beneath
beside
beyond
during
except
into
past
since
throughout
toward
upon
within
without
Steps
1.Select two major problem elements.
2.Select a relational word and insert it between the two problem elements.
3.Examine the combination and write down any ideas suggested.
4.Repeat steps 2 and 3.
Sample Problem: HMW Improve a Portable Radio?
1.Select two major problem elements.
•Radio
•Listener
2.Select a relational word and insert it between the two problem elements.
•Radio above a listener
3.Examine the combination and write down any ideas suggested.
•Put a radio inside a hat.
4.Repeat steps 2 and 3.
•Radio after a listener—A “fanny pack” radio.
•Radio off a listener—Put a radio inside a ball, which is tossed at another person.
•Radio under a listener—Put a radio inside the soles of jogging shoes.
•Radio where a listener—Install portable radio vending machines where joggers run.
Reversals
One often becomes so familiar with a problem that creative solutions are elusive. Reversing the direction of a problem statement frequently can provide new perspectives and suggest new ideas. Many people probably have used reversals to generate ideas and not known it. For instance, consider police sting operations in which they send invitations to known criminals for a party. Once the criminals arrive, the police arrest them. This reverses the typical approach to law enforcement: Instead of police going out to capture the criminals, they try to get the criminals to come to them.
Steps
1.Reverse the problem statement in any way possible—that is, change the subject, verb, or object.
2.Use the reversed definition to stimulate a practical solution. Although there may not be a logical connection, write down whatever practical solutions come to mind.
3.Repeat steps 1 and 2 until enough ideas are generated.
Sample Problem: HMW Encourage Managers to Attend a Management Development Seminar?
1.Reverse the problem statement in any way possible—that is, change the subject, verb, or object.
•Discourage employees from attending the seminar.
2.Use the reversed definition to stimulate a practical solution.
•Cut pay for nonattendance.
•Tell them they won’t be promoted if they don’t attend.
•Offer them the option of taking the seminar as a videoconference.
Two Words
We sometimes have trouble generating ideas because of the choice of words in the problem statement. Simple changes in key words, however, can alter the meaning enough to suggest more ideas. The two words technique helps overcome this obstacle by providing alternate words to consider. Thus, it provides different problem perspectives.
1.Generate a list of words similar in meaning to the main verb and object in the problem statement (a thesaurus will make this task easier).
2.Select a word from the first list, combine it with a word from the second list, and use this combination to generate ideas.
3.Repeat step 2 until you have examined a number of word combinations.
Sample Problem: HMW Reduce Conflict Between Two Departments?
Depreciate |
Discord |
Diminish |
Fight |
Lessen |
Dispute |
Downgrade |
Friction |
Dilute |
Contention |
Discount |
Disharmony |
1.Select a word from the first list, combine it with a word from the second list, and use this combination to generate ideas.
•Dilute-Discord: Reduce the number of interactions between the departments.
2.Repeat step 2 until you have examined a number of word combinations. For instance:
•Downgrade-Discord: Downgrade departmental performance ratings until the conflict diminishes.
•Depreciate-Dispute: Assess fines to departmental members every time they have a public argument.
•Discount-Disharmony: Ignore the conflict and hope the department members can resolve it themselves.
Word Diamond
This technique, which I developed many years ago, is a distant cousin of the two words approach to idea generation. Instead of using different word meanings, however, the word diamond uses different combinations of words or phrases in the problem statement. At least four problem words are required, although it also will work with three words. (In this case, the technique might more suitably be called the word triangle.)
Steps
1.Choose four words or major phrases from the problem statement.
2.Place the words in a diamond shape so that each point has a word or phrase.
3.Combine one of the words or phrases with another word or phrase and write down any ideas prompted by the combination.
4.Combine the word initially selected in step 3 with the remaining two. Use these combinations to suggest additional ideas.
5.Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all possible combinations have been examined and all ideas recorded.
Sample Problem: HMW Encourage Employees to Clean Up Their Work Areas?
1.Choose four words or major phrases from the problem statement.
•Encourage
•Work areas
•Employees
•Clean up
2.Place the words in a diamond shape so that each point has a word or phrase. (See Figure 8-1.)
3.Combine one of the words or phrases with another word or phrase and write down any ideas prompted by the combination.
•Encourage-Work areas: Make the environment more pleasant by increasing the accessibility of trash receptacles.
FIGURE 8-1. Example of the word diamond technique.
4.Combine the word initially selected in step 3 with the remaining two. Use these combinations to suggest additional ideas.
•Encourage-Employees: Financially reward cooperative employees.
•Encourage-Clean up: Pay employees a piece rate based on how much scrap waste they dispose of.
5.Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all possible combinations have been examined and all ideas recorded.
•Employees-Work areas: Create a sense of ownership so employees will be less likely to litter in their own work areas.
•Employees-Encourage: Form quality circle discussion groups.
•Employees-Clean up: Conduct a contest, and award prizes for the department with the cleanest work area.
INDIVIDUAL TECHNIQUES USING UNRELATED STIMULI
The following techniques rely on stimuli other than those related to the problem of interest.
Analogies
An analogy is a comparison of similarities between like things. In creative problem solving, analogies help to provide new perspectives by forcing the user to break away from conventional viewpoints. Analogies often are borrowed from nature. For instance, a new marketing strategy might be likened to the way bees collect honey. A company might devise a marketing campaign involving viral (word-of-mouth) marketing in much the same way that bees fly around pollinating flowers and bring the results back to the hive. Because analogies symbolically produce unusual perspectives, they often help to generate unique ideas.
Although you could generate ideas simply by thinking of things similar to your problem and borrowing concepts, a more systematic procedure is likely to work better.
Steps
1.Decide on the major principle represented by your problem.
2.Generate a list of things (analogies) that represent the major principle. Generally, if your problem involves people, you should think of “nonpeople” analogies; if your problem involves things, think of analogies involving people.
3.Select one of the analogies. The best analogies frequently are the most unusual or violate some cultural taboo.
4.Describe the analogy in detail, elaborating with action-oriented phrases as much as possible.
5.Use the descriptions to suggest ideas.
Sample Problem: HMW Reduce the Number of Employees Who Leave Our Organization?
1.Decide on the major principle.
•In this case, the major problem principle is retention.
2.Generate a list of analogies. For this example, generate a list of things in life that involve retention. Generate your list by phrasing your problem in the following way: Retaining employees in an organization is like . . .
•Building a dam to retain water.
•Going to the dentist to keep your teeth.
•Trying various “magical” hair tonics to retain your hair.
•Building a wall to retain dirt.
•Sealing food in a plastic bag to retain freshness.
•Fertilizing your lawn to retain the grass.
•Keeping the gate closed on a bucking bronco.
3.Select one of the analogies.
•For instance, you might select the hair tonic analogy.
4.Describe the analogy in detail. Trying various “magical” hair tonics to retain your hair involves:
•Checking out the reputation of the manufacturer.
•Asking about research studies documenting effectiveness.
•Finding out where to purchase the hair tonic.
•Traveling to the store (or ordering by mail) to make the purchase.
•Reading the instructions on how to use the tonic.
•Applying the tonic regularly.
•Checking in the mirror to evaluate results.
•Writing to the manufacturer to complain about the lack of results.
5.Use the descriptions to suggest ideas. The final step is to examine each descriptor to see if it suggests any ideas for the problem of employee retention. For example:
•Improve the organization’s reputation so employees will feel proud to work there (from “checking out the reputation”).
•Conduct exit interviews to determine why employees leave (from “asking about research studies”).
•Allow employees to purchase stock or merchandise and services at reduced rates (from “finding out where to purchase”).
•Give free local vacations to employees who remain a certain number of years (from “traveling to the store”).
•Offer in-house education programs that, when completed, lead to raises (from “reading the instructions”).
•Make sure bosses meet with their workers on a regular basis (from “applying the tonic regularly”).
•Conduct employee attitude surveys to highlight major concerns and anticipate future problems (from “checking in the mirror”).
•Start an employee suggestion program for ideas to retain employees (from “writing to the manufacturer”).
Attribute Analogy Chains
This technique was developed by educators Don Koberg and Jim Bagnall. It actually is a combination of two techniques: attribute listing and analogies. In contrast to analogies, which is based solely on unrelated problem stimuli, this method also uses related stimuli. Thus, people who may be uncomfortable with unrelated stimuli alone may find this approach appealing.
Sample Problem: HMW Improve a Filing Cabinet?
1.List problem components.
•Name, material, function, form, parts
2.List subcomponents of each component.
•Name: filing cabinet
•Material: steel, aluminum, plastic
•Function: storing paper documents
•Parts: drawers, rollers, handles
3.List analogy descriptors for each subcomponent:
•Name: paper retainer
•Material: hard as a diamond (steel), flexible as a wet noodle (aluminum), moldable as gelatin (plastic)
•Function: a battery storing energy
•Form: a coffin
•Parts: train cars (drawers), roller skate wheels (rollers), lawn mower pull cord (handles)
4.Use analogies to stimulate ideas.
•Build in a paper dispenser (“paper retainer”).
•Design one drawer as a security drawer for valuables (“hard as a diamond”).
•Attach a flexible neck lamp that can be removed when desired (“flexible as a wet noodle”).
•Design cabinet shapes using different themes or to reflect different products (“moldable as gelatin”).
•Drawers open and close electronically (“battery”).
•Hinged top (“coffin”).
•Modular cabinet units (“train cars”).
•Wheels on cabinet bottoms (“roller skate wheels”).
•Handle pulls recessed into drawer fronts (“lawn mower pull cord”).
Modifier Noun Associations
I developed this technique to generate new product ideas. It helps you generate these ideas by combining a noun and a modifier and then free-associating using these combinations.
1.Generate a list of nouns and modifiers. Try to include some unusual combinations (e.g., glowing apples).
2.Select one combination and free-associate additional modifier-noun combinations from the original combination.
3.Use all the combinations as stimuli and to generate ideas.
Sample Problem: HMW Improve a Portable Radio?
1.Generate a list of nouns and modifiers.
•Glowing apples, heavy lightbulbs, corrosive bedsheets, wicked pickles
2.Select one combination and free-associate additional modifier-noun combinations from the original combination.
•Glowing apples
•Radiant peaches
•Fuzzy elephants
•Hairy trunks
•Fat swimmers
•Flying boats
3.Use all the combinations as stimuli and to generate ideas.
•Glow-in-the-dark radio (from “glowing apples”)
•Insulated storage compartment for fruit and other snacks (from “radiant peaches”)
•Radio that makes animal sounds for children (from “fuzzy elephants”)
•Novelty radio that grows hair—the louder music is played, the faster the hair grows (from “hairy trunks”)
•Radio that floats in water (from “fat swimmers”)
•Remote-controlled model ship radio (from “flying boats”)
Product Improvement CheckList
I developed the Product Improvement CheckList (PICL) as an aid for generating new product ideas. It also has proved useful for generating ideas for a variety of less tangible problems—for example, marketing and customer service problems. It consists of a poster-size worksheet with 576 idea stimulators organized into four categories: Try to, Make It, Think of, and Take Away or Add. (A different version of PlCL exists as Circles of Creativity. The stimulator words are arranged as overlapping circles that rotate, allowing comparisons across categories.)
Some examples of stimulators in each category are:
•Try to: sketch it, wipe it, tighten it, twist it, build it up backward, whip it, inflate it
•Make it: soft, transparent, magnetic, portable, disposable, late, zigzag, adjustable
•Think of: escalators, Sir Lancelot, oatmeal, stethoscopes, time bombs, eggshells, disappearing ink
•Take away or add: layers, sex appeal, friction, rhythm, sand, turbulence, energy, anticipation
Steps
There are a number of ways to use PICL. Here is the most basic:
1.Select one of the four categories and scan the list words or phrases.
2.Arbitrarily choose one of the words and use it to stimulate an idea. That is, mentally experiment with the word and see what concept, principle, or action it represents that might be used to prompt an idea.
3.Write down any ideas suggested.
4.Repeat steps 1 through 3.
Sample Problem: HMW Improve a Flashlight?
1.Select one of the four categories and scan the list words or phrases.
•Try to: twist it.
2.Arbitrarily choose one of the words and use it to stimulate an idea.
•“Twist it” suggests ways a flashlight is or could be used.
3.Write down any ideas suggested.
•Twist it: Make the flashlight handle out of rubber so it can be twisted into different shapes (Note: this idea was published in my Idea Power book prior to similar products now on the market.)
4.Repeat steps 1 through 3.
•Try to inflate it: This makes me think of blowing up something like a balloon. Make the flashlight buoyant in case it falls into water.
•Make it transparent: This word causes me to visualize seeing through a flashlight. Make the flashlight transparent as a novelty, much like transparent telephones.
•Make it disposable: This is almost too obvious. Make disposable flashlights!
•Think of Sir Lancelot: A knight often used a lance as a weapon. For law enforcement officers, build in a knife or single-shot gun.
•Think of time bombs: This makes me think of time ticking away. Include a timer so that the flashlight will turn itself off automatically after a certain time period.
•Take away or add layers: Layers cause me to think of something that can be laid on top of something else and possibly removed. Include a variety of interchangeable light filters for the lens.
•Take away or add anticipation: The word anticipation makes me consider thinking of something before it happens—for instance, thinking of the flashlight turning on before I even touch the switch. Have the flashlight turn on by pressure on the handle.