2.1. A five-layer multiple scale tagging structure of chromosome 22 when r² = 0.4. 20

2.2. The relationship between haplotypes and potential causative variants. 22

2.3. A typical Manhattan plot for a GWAS. 38

3.1. A heatmap visualization of a gene-by-subject expression data matrix. 61

3.2. A typical volcano plot of a transcriptomics study. 64

3.3. A 2-D plot by principal component analysis. 66

4.1. The breaking points result in different types of peptide fragments after collision. 94

4.2. The direct and inverse process from peptide to spectrum. 95

5.1. A schematic diagram of SBMS compared with association studies. 115

6.1. A time-course illustration of disease phenotype and biomarker quantities. 131

6.2. A typical Kaplan-Meier plot of survival curves. 135

2.1. Information of various projects and technological platforms measured by numbers of nucleotide bases 17

2.2. The 2 × 2 contingency table of allele counts 34

2.3. The 3 × 2 contingency table of genotype counts 34

6.1. The table of classifications 136