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End User License Agreement
by Stephen M. Testa, James A. Jacobs
Environmental Considerations Associated with Hydraulic Fracturing Operations
Cover
List of Figures
List of Tables
Foreword
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction
1.1 Energy and the Shale Revolution
1.2 Cultural Influences
1.3 Conventional Versus Unconventional Resources
1.4 Well Simulation
1.5 Hydraulic Fracturing in the United States
1.6 Environmental Considerations
1.7 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
2 Historical Development from Fracturing to Hydraulic Fracturing
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Explosives and Guns (1820s–1930s)
2.3 The Birth of the Petroleum Engineer (1940s–1950s)
2.4 Going Nuclear During Peak Oil (1960s to Mid‐1970s)
2.5 The Rise of the Unconventionals (Mid‐1970s to Present)
2.6 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
3 Geology of Unconventional Resources
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Oil Shale Nomenclature
3.3 Oil Shale Classification
3.4 Types of Shale Formations Based on Production
3.5 Geology of United States Shale Deposits
3.6 The Role of Natural Fractures
3.7 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
4 Overview of Drilling and Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation Techniques for Tight Oil and Gas Shale Formations
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Phase 1: Prospect Generation for Unconventional Oil and Gas Targets
4.3 Phase 2: Planning Phase
4.4 Phase 3: Drilling
4.5 Brief Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing
4.6 Operators and Contractors
4.7 Phase 4: Completion
4.8 Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing Process
4.9 Single‐Stage Treatment
4.10 Fluid Recovery and Waste Management
4.11 Oil and Gas Production
4.12 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM)
4.13 Workshop #1: Gas Well Economic Limit
4.14 Workshop #2: Oil Well Economics
4.15 Well Destruction
4.16 Summary
4.17 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
5 Overview of Impacts from Tight Oil and Shale Gas Resource Development
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Potential Impacts and Risks of Spills
5.3 Significance of Impacts
5.4 Overview of the Five Main Resource Categories
5.5 Primary Wastes Generated
5.6 Site‐specific Impact Analysis
5.7 Summary of Resources and Issues
5.8 Summary
5.9 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
6 Surface and Groundwater Risks, Resource Quality Management, and Impacts
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle
6.3 Potential Impacts on Drinking Water Resources
6.4 Public Water System (PWS) Sources
6.5 Underground Injection Control
6.6 Case Histories
6.7 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
7 Induced Seismicity
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Measuring Earthquake Severity
7.3 Anthropogenic‐Induced Earthquakes
7.4 Mechanics of Anthropogenic‐Induced Earthquakes
7.5 Induced Microseismicity and Microseismic Monitoring
7.6 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
8 Air Quality Resources and Mitigation Measures
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Unconventional Resource Extraction and Air Quality
8.3 Sources of Air Emissions
8.4 Worker Safety
8.5 Gas Leaks and Vapor Sampling
8.6 Biogenic and Thermogenic Hydrocarbon Gases
8.7 Gas Leaks
8.8 Soil Vapor Intrusion Overview
8.9 General Approach to Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion
8.10 Summary
8.11 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
9 Land Use Resources and Socioeconomics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Community Concerns and Land Use Planning
9.3 Environmental Justice
9.4 Land Disturbance
9.5 Light Pollution
9.6 Noise
9.7 Odor
9.8 Socioeconomics
9.9 Transportation and Traffic
9.10 Visual Aesthetics
9.11 Worker Safety
9.12 Cumulative Impacts
9.13 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
10 Ecological Resources
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Ecosystem Resources
10.3 Ecosystem Resources
10.4 Interim Reclamation
10.5 Summary
10.6 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
11 Legislative Trends Associated with Well Stimulation and Hydraulic Fracturing
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Federal Laws and Regulations
11.3 State Legislation and Regulations
11.4 Bans and Moratoriums
11.5 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
12 Sampling, Exposure Pathways, and Site Conceptual Models
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Hypothetical Scenario
12.3 Overview of Sampling Procedures
12.4 Soil and Water Sampling
12.5 Field Screening and Analysis
12.6 Other Considerations
12.7 Fate and Transport
12.8 Summary
12.9 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
13 Financial Issues
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Valuation of Real Estate
13.3 Water Supplies
13.4 Other Mitigating Costs
13.5 Mitigation of Subsurface Impacts
13.6 Remediation Strategies
13.7 Budgeting for Costs
13.8 Summary
13.9 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
14 Legal Considerations and Case Law
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Environmental Tort Litigation
14.3 Environmental/Citizen Action and Industry Challenges Litigation
14.4 Infrastructure‐Related Litigation
14.5 Traditional Oil and Gas Issues in Nontraditional Forums
14.6 Fracking Bans and Moratoriums
14.7 Summary
14.8 Exercises
Reference
Suggested Reading
15 Spills, Forensic Evaluation, and Case Studies
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Spill Studies
15.3 Spill Settlement Case Study
15.4 Violations
15.5 Forensic Analysis
15.6 Prospective and Retrospective Case Studies
15.7 Exercises
References
Suggested Reading
16 Conclusions
Appendix A: Selected University Studies, State, and Federal Reports
A.1 Selected US University Studies
References
Suggested Reading
Selected State Reports
Selected US Federal Agency Reports
Appendix B: Glossary
References
Suggested Reading
Appendix C: List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
Suggested Reading
Appendix D: Conversions
Common Oil Industry Conversions
Suggested Readings
Appendix E: Summary of Potential Job Hazards During Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation Process
Hydraulic Fracturing Stimulation Process and Potential Hazards and Job Steps
Reference
Appendix F: Chemical Additives Used in the High‐Volume Hydraulic Fracturing Operations
US House of Representatives HVHF Report (2011)
Hydraulic Fracturing Chemicals
References
Appendix G: Exposure Planning, Emergency Response, and Toxicity Tables
Exposure Planning, Response Actions and Environmental Impacts
Preparing for Shipments
Compilation of Information
Emergency Response
Petroleum Hydrocarbon Characteristics
Exposure and Safety Limits
Contained or Controlled Burns
Health Protective Concentrations
References
Suggested Reading
Appendix H: Selected Sampling Methods and Documentation
General Sampling Procedures
Decontamination
Instrument Calibration and Maintenance
Prior to Drilling Activities
Soil Sampling
Surface Samples
Lithologic Description
Soil Texture and Grain Size
Lithologic Interpretation
Soil Sample Shipment
Sampling Preparation Methods
Drilling‐derived Waste Disposal
Sample Preparation, Packaging, and Handling
Soil Vapor Sampling
Active Soil Gas Sampling (EPA Method TO‐15)
Soil Vapor Sample Containers
Soil Vapor Quality Control and Decontamination
Passive Soil Gas Sampling (EPA Method TO‐17 and TO‐15)
Soil Vapor Sample Log (Chains of Custody)
Groundwater Sampling
Water Sampling from Monitoring Wells
Quality Control
Water Sample Preservation
Sample Labeling
Field Quality Control Samples
Travel Blanks
Field Blanks
Field Duplicates
Matrix Spike
Sample Handling, Storage, and Transportation
Documentation
References
Suggested Reading
Appendix I: Environmental Checklists
Appendix J: Metric Conversion of Table 3.4 (Metric Units in Bold italics)
Summary of Subsurface Information on Major Gas Shale Basins in the United States
Reference
Appendix K: US Crude Oil Prices 1859–2016
US Crude Oil First Purchase Price (Not Adjusted for Inflation)
Selected Historic Events
U.S. Crude Oil First Purchase Price (Dollars per Barrel)
Suggested Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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