Subject Index
Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD), 26, 48–49
Academy of Management, 46
accountability: challenge of, 399
program assessment approaches to, 385–387, 388f
achievement orientation, 348f
action learning, 245–246, 245f, 273, 274
action research, 40, 67–68, 296–299, 297f
action science, 69
ADDIE process (analyze, design, develop, implement, and evaluate), 232, 233–234, 268
adopters, 325
adult development theory, 329–330
adult learning, 188–193, 190f, 191f
agency, learner: calls to learn and, 423–424
conscious, increasing, 421–422
external context for, 421
learning process and, 422–423
machine intelligence and, 427–428
overview of, 420–421
unleashing, 427
agent learners, 420
agnotology, 477–478
alignment, 402–403
ambivalence, 318
forms of, 318–320
American Management Association (AMA), 44–45
andragogy, 21
core model of, 188–190
-in-practice model, 190–193, 191f
learning and, 188–193, 190f, 191f
artificial intelligence (AI), 427–428, 446–448, 449
assessment, program: accountability and, 385–387, 388f
Balanced Scorecard in, 389–390, 389f
challenge of, 399
financial assessment in, 395–399, 397f
four-level evaluation model in, 385–386
intellectual capital in, 390–392, 391f
in practice, 386–387
results approach to, 387, 388f
Results Assessment System in, 392–393, 392f
augmented reality (AR)-based training simulations, 442–443
authenticity: learning and, 215–217
automation, 444–448
Balanced Scorecard, 389–390, 389f
behavioral psychology, 94
behaviorism, 102–103, 179–182, 180f
benchmarking, 344–345
big data, 446
black swan, 471
bots, 443–444
Bowling Green State University, 48
capacity for performance, 106, 169f
capitalism, surveillance, 113–114
career development: case example, 434
defining, 428–429
future of, 433–434
human resource development and, 428–434, 431
integration model, 430–432, 431
key players, 430
organization development and, 433–434
theory, 330–331
training and development and, 433–434
workshop, 434
career development assessment center, 350–351
case example: action learning, 274
artificial intelligence, 449
career development, 434
core values, 278
corporate culture, 340
equipment maintenance, 274
financial assessment, 398–399
globalization, 464–465
hands-on training, 272
human capital, 116
organizational change, 313, 313f
organization development, 10
results assessment, 394–395
scenario planning, 382–383
strategic roles, 364
training and development, 10, 270
tunneling, 346
virtual reality-based training, 449
change: adult development theory of, 329–330
alpha, 312
beta, 312
Burke-Litwin model of, 321–322
as career development, 308
cause of, 66
continuous, 311
core dimensions of, 309–311, 311f
development theories of, 330
dialectic theory of, 316f, 317
driving forces in, 314
early models of, 291–292
episodic, 311
evolutionary theory of, 316f, 317
field theory of, 312–315
focused perspectives on, 320–332, 322f–325f
freezing and, 314–315
gamma, 312
as goal-directed activity, 308
group theories of, 328–329
improvement and, 227
as individual development, 307
individual theories of, 329–332
as innovation, 308
innovation diffusion theory of, 325, 325f
as internal adult development, 308
invention and, 227
as learning, 307–308
life cycle theory of, 316, 316f
life span, life space approach for, 331–332
organizational communications approach to, 326
organizational model, 324f
organizational theories of, 321–326, 322f–325f
organization development practices and, 338
outcomes, 312
perspectives on, 307–308
processes, 120
process theories of, 316f
rate of, 25
resistance to, 317–320
restraining forces in, 314
sociotechnical systems theory of, 315
strategic, 41
systems theory of, 120–121
teleological theory of, 316, 316f
theories of, 312–317, 313f, 316f
transformational, 309–311, 311f
transformational subsystems and, 324–325
types of, 311f
typology of theories of, 315–317, 316f
urgency and, 333f
whole-system, 292–293
work adjustment theory of, 332
work process theories of, 326–328, 327f
change agent, 65–69
chatbots, 443–444
cloud-based platforms, 443–444
coaching, 351
cognitive development, 184
cognitive school, 359f
cognitive structure, 66
cognitivism, 103, 182–184, 183f
collectivism, 454
Comparative Study Framework, 405–407, 406f
competence: defined, 254–264
as not enough, 255
competence-based training, 212, 212f
competing values framework, 152f
complex adaptive systems (CAS), 118
configuration school, 360f
cooperation, in early history, 31
critical race theory (CRT), 73
critical theory, 73–74
cross-cultural team building, 346
cross-cultural training (CCT), 459–460, 460, 462–463
cultural competence, 461
cultural school, 360f
cultural sensitivity, 23
cultural understanding, 453–456, 454
cultural values, 347f–348f
culture: corporate, 340
defined, 453
emic approach to, 455–456
etic approach to, 454, 454–455
globalization and, 452–453
organization, 339–341
survey practices, 339–341
training and development and, 267
customs, organization, 347f–348f
cybernetics, 117
data, big, 446
data gathering, 296–297
decision-making elements, 70
deep knowledge, 257
deep learning (DL), 446–447
demand: elasticity of, 111–112
supply and, 111
designer, organizational, 69–72
design school, 359f
design thinking, 72, 412–413, 412f
developer of human capital, 74–77
development theories of change, 330
digitalization, 438–444, 441, 442
disciplinary foundations, 88–91, 90f
disruption, 467–472
disruptive innovation, 470
domains of performance, 105
drivers, performance, 142
economics: defined, 107
globalism and, 473–474
globalization and, 451–452
human capital theory and, 110–113
performance and, 134
economic theory, 91–93
education: in early history, 32–33
in management and leadership development history, 46
screening theory of, 113
in strategic planning, 367–368
education-training dichotomy, 225
effectiveness. See organizational effectiveness
elasticity of demand, 111–112
electronic learning environments (ELEs), 214
electronic performance support systems (EPSS), 210
emic approach, to cultural understanding, 455–456
empiricism, 32
employee self-service (ESS) portals, 444
entrepreneurial school, 359f
environment: in behaviorism, 181
of human resource development, 20, 20f
organization development, 294f
person-environment correspondence, 332
environmental school, 360f
equipment maintenance, 274
ethnocentrism, 458
etic approach, to cultural understanding, 454, 454–455
evolutionary theory, 317
expatriates, 459
experience: as component of expertise, 260
as teacher, 32–33
experiential learning model, 193–195, 194f
expertise: as adaptation, 254
apprenticeship and, 31
belief in, 11–12
cognitive theories of, 256–257
context for understanding of, 256
defined, 254–264
development training, 182
documentation of workplace, 251, 252f
experience component of, 260
experience vs., 254
expert performance and, 253–254
financial performance and, 157
in global perspective, 363–365
human capital and, 74
implications of, for human resource development, 263
improvement and, 16
information access and, 253–254
information representation and, 253
knowledge component of, 259
knowledge engineering theories of, 257–258
learning strategies for realms of, 251–253
military training and, 250–251
nature of, 249–265, 252f, 258f, 262f, 264f
operational definition of, 261–263
operational understanding of, 255–256
organization development process, 337
in performance, 169f
performance systems and, 140
problem-solving component of, 260–261
process-referenced, 277f
reflection and, 254
strategy and, 361–362
system-wide, 279
taxonomy of performance and, 227
theoretical perspectives on, 256–261, 258f
in training and development, 229–230
feedback, survey, 40
femininity, 454
field of practice, human resource development as, 13–14
field theory, 65, 67, 68–69, 292, 312–315
financial assessment, 395–399, 397f
financial benefit analysis, 160
financial performance, 157–161, 161f
flexibility-stability axis, 151
Ford Foundation, 46
four-level evaluation model, 385–386
game changer, 471
general systems theory (GST), 96, 97, 117
geocentrism, 458
George Washington University, 48
Gestalt psychology, 94, 102, 103, 180f, 182–184, 183f
global context, 22–24
globalism, 472–476
economics of, 473–474
national power and, 474
globalization: case example, 464–465
challenges in age of, 462–463
cross-cultural training and, 459–460, 460, 462–463
cultural understanding and, 453–456, 454
culture and, 452–453
economics and, 451–452
executive traits and, 461
human resource development and, 452–463, 454, 460
international programs and, 458–459
learning organization strategy and, 198
mindsets with, 23
staffing and, 457–458
transformation of work and, 41
global power, 476
goal of improvement, 16–17
Great Depression, 45
group-focused training and development, 245–247, 245f
group theories of change, 328–329
hands-on training (HOT), 243–244, 272
helper, organizational, 65–69
history, of human resource development: early, 30–36
timeline, 49–54
hodology, 66
holistic learning, 180f, 186–188, 187f
host country national (HCN), 458–459
HOT POPPER, 243–244
human capital: case example, 116
developer, 74–77
economics and, 110–113
in financial assessment, 396
future challenges, 113
performance matrix, 161f
return on investment of, 160–161
specific, 108
humanist learning orientation, 180f
human performance engineering model, 174–175
human performance technology, 154f
human potential, 16
human relations, 38
human relations model, 151
human resource analytics suites, 444
human resource development (HRD): applications of, 4f
artificial intelligence in, 446–448
automation in, 444–448
big data in, 446
career development and, 428–434, 431
components of, 4f
core beliefs, 11–13
critical, 73
defined, 4–5, 4f, 6f–9f, 86–88
digitalization in, 438–444, 441, 442
disciplinary foundations of, 88–91, 90f
as discipline, 13–14
economic theory component of, 91–93
emergent strategy and, 369–371, 381
globalization and, 452–463, 454, 460
history of, 29–54
paradigms of, 129–149, 131f, 147f
performance-based, 366–367
points of agreement in, 16–19, 18f
as professional field of practice, 13–14
project management, 413–414, 415
psychological theory component of, 93–95
purpose of, 4
strategic capability of, 367–369, 380–381
strategic roles of, 358–371, 359f–360f
strategic value of, 362–363
as system, 123
theoretical foundations of, 88–91, 90f
theory building in, 123
theory of, 84–97, 87f, 88f, 90f
threats to excellent practice of, 25–26
value chain, 403–404
human resource management (HRM), 16
improvement, as goal, 16–17
incidental learning, 228–229, 229f
individual differences, 192, 193
individual growth: in learning, 192
perspective, 103–104
individual-level learning models, 188–198, 190f, 191f, 194f, 196f
individual-level performance models, 172–175
indulgence, 454
Industrial Era, 34–36
industrial sociology, 156f
informal learning, 228–229, 229f
information and communication technology (ICT): effective use of, 270
human resource development and, 205–206
organizational development and, 208–210
performance improvement and, 210–211
virtual organizations and, 206–208, 207f
information processing, 183, 183f
innovation diffusion theory, 325, 325f
inpatriates, 460–461
institutional growth, 192
instructional systems development (ISD), 232–234, 233f
instructional technology, 205
intellectual capital, 156f, 390–392, 391f
intellectual interdependency, 352f
internal maintenance-external positioning axis, 151
international programs, 458–459
Internet, as disruptive innovation, 471–472
Internet of Things (IoT), 437
interventionist, organizational, 65–69
interview questions, 372–373
iPhone, 470
Job Instruction Training Program (JIT), 37
Job Methods Training Program (JMT), 38
Job Relations Training Program (JRT), 38
job-specific task proficiency, 173
key players, 25–26
knowing in action, 197
knowledge: deep, 257
engineering theories of expertise, 257–258
as expertise component, 259
shallow, 257
system-wide, 279
knowledge layers, 187f
laboratory training, 39–40
learner perspective, 21–22, 21f
learning: action, 245–246, 245f, 273, 274
andragogy and, 188–193, 190f, 191f
authenticity and, 215–217
behaviorist theory of, 179–182, 180f
calls to learn in, 423–424
change as, 307–308
cognitive development and, 184
cognitivist orientation on, 180f, 182–184, 183f
cognitivist theory of, 180f
debates about, 132–133
deep, 446–447
desired future as guide in, 424
double-loop, 197
experiential model of, 193–195, 194f
Gestalt orientation on, 180f, 182–184, 183f
as good, 137
as humanistic behavior, 135
humanist orientation on, 180f, 184–185
individual differences and, 192, 193
individual growth and, 192
information extraction in, 425
information processing and, 183–184, 183f
institutional growth and, 192
to last, 425–426
metacognition and, 184
models at individual level, 188–198, 190f, 191f, 194f, 196f
orchestration of, as journey, 424
organizational level models of, 198–202, 201f, 202f
organization theory, 130
orientations to, 180f
performance and, 145, 146–148, 147f
philosophical views of, 133–136
for realms of expertise, 251–253
search and select in, 424
self-managed, 420–428
sensory, 32
single-loop, 197
situational differences and, 192, 193
socialization and, 186
societal growth and, 192–193
subject-matter differences and, 192–193
theories of, 179–188, 180f, 183f, 187f
three views of, 135–136
as tool for societal oppression, 135–136
transfer of, in behaviorism, 181–182
transfer of, to life, 426
transfer of, to workplace, 269–270
transformational, 197–198
as value-neutral transmission of information, 135
whole-part-whole learning model, 237–238, 238f
learning experience platforms (LXP), 444
learning organization: and performance outcomes, 200–202
strategy, 198–200
learning school, 360f
life span, life space approach, 331–332
long-term orientation, 454
machine intelligence, 427–428, 446–448
machine learning (ML), 437, 446–447
macroeconomic theory, 112–113
management and leadership development (MLD), 42–48
boom in, 45–46
company-based programs, 46
defined, 43
Great Depression and, 45
management reform movement and, 46–47
in modern era, 47–48
origins of, in 1800s, 43–44
professionalization and, 44–45
manual training, 33
masculinity, 454
meaning maker, organizational, 72–74
metacognition, 184
microeconomics, 154f
middle class, 477
military training, 250–251
Millennium Development Goals, 407–408
minorities, 477
model, of human resource development, 86–88, 87f
motivation, in performance, 169f
multirater appraisals, 349
National Association of Corporate Schools, 44
National Association of Corporate Training, 44
national power, 474
National Training Laboratories (NTL), 40
nonjob-specific task proficiency, 173
on-the-job training, 244, 244f
ontogeny, 120
opportunity costs, 112
organizational change agent, 65–69
organizational change theories, 321–326, 322f–325f
organizational communications approach, to change, 326
organizational designer, 69–72
organizational development: information and communication technology in, 208–210
performance model, 168–171, 169f, 170f
organizational effectiveness: competing values framework of, 152f
flexibility-stability axis and, 151
internal maintenance-external positioning axis and, 151
models, 152f
as precursor to performance, 151, 152f
organizational empowerer, 72–74
organizational learning, 198, 246–247
organizational level learning models, 198–202, 201f, 202f
organizational meaning maker, 72–74
organizational perspective, 22, 22f
organizational problem solver, 63–64
organization development (OD): action research and, 296–299
benchmarking and, 344–345
career development and, 433–434
case example, 10
change, 295f
change agent, 295f
client-centered consultation in, 294f
client in, 294f
cross-cultural team building in, 346
cube, 336–337
culture in, 294f
dynamics, 338–339
early change models and, 291–292
environment, 294f
evolution of, 38–42
future planning and, 341–342
general process, 293–296, 294f, 295f
group conflict and, 347
host organization relation and, 337
integrity in, 338
intervention, 294f
key terms, 293
mission, 295f
outcome variable and, 287–291, 288f–291f
overview of, 285–305, 288f–291f, 293f–295f, 297f, 299f, 301f
planned incremental change and, 309
process expertise, 337
process improvement and, 343–344, 343f, 344f
sponsor, 295f
stakeholder, 295f
strategic intervention, 294f
techno-structural intervention, 294f
360-degree feedback in, 349–350, 347f–348f
trust in, 338
views of, 286–293, 288f–291f, 293f
whole-system change and, 292–293
organization development for performance system (ODPS), 301–304
organization development (OD) practices: change and, 338
core, 338–339
group-focused, 346–348
individual-focused, 349–351, 347f–348f
organization-focused, 339–342
variations in, 336–337
work process-focused, 342–345, 343f, 345f
organization development process (ODP), 299–301, 299f
organization-focused training and development practices, 277–279
overlapping situations, 67
paradigms: of human resource development, 129–149, 131f, 147f
parent country national (PCN), 458–459
partial-factor productivity, 111
performance: components, 173
debates about, 132–133
defined, 139
determinants, 173
diagnosis process and matrix, 167–168, 167f
disciplinary bias of models in, 153
disciplinary perspectives on, 153–157, 154f–156f
drivers, 142
expertise and, 169f
facilitation, 173
human performance engineering model, 174–175
human performance technology, 154f
improvement, 154f
indicators, 157
individual-level models of, 172–175
as instrument or organizational oppression, 134
as key outcome variable, 86
learning and, 145, 146–148, 147f
levels, 167–168
management, 156f
motivation, 169f
as multi-disciplinary phenomenon, 153
multilevel models, 161–171, 163f–165f, 167f, 169f, 170f
as natural outcome of human activity, 134
as necessary for economic activity, 134
organizational development model, 168–171, 169f, 170f
organizational effectiveness as precursor to, 151, 152f
philosophical views of, 133–136
predictors, 173
process level models of, 171–172
strategic improvement, 154f
team-level models of, 171–172
theoretical assumptions, 139–145
three views of, 133–135
units of, 159–160
white space model, 162, 164f–165f, 165–166
performance-based human resource development, 366–367
performance-based learning, 130, 131f
performance improvement, 210–211
personal discipline, 173
person-environment correspondence, 332
planning: human resource development, 410–411
levels of, 405–410
planning school, 359f
players, key, 25–26
points of agreement, 16–19, 18f
policy: human resource development, 404–405
large system, 407–409
levels of, 405–410
at organization level, 409–410
value chain and, 403–404
political shifts, 477–478
polycentrism, 458
population ecology, 120
positioning school, 359f
potential, human, 16
power: global, 476
national, 474
power elite, 474–476
power school, 360f
Principles of Scientific Management, The (Taylor), 44
problem identification, 296
problem solver, organizational, 63–64
problem-solving orientation, 17
process: design, 327
-focused training and development, 275–277, 276f, 277f
improvement, 171, 172, 322f, 343–344, 343f, 344f
-level performance models, 171–172
management, 322f
reengineering, 171
-referenced expertise, 277f
-referenced training, 275
studying, 275
understanding, 275
production functions, 112
productivity, 111
partial-factor, 111
total factor, 111
program assessment. See assessment, program
Program Development Method (PDM), 38
project management, 413–414, 415
Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), 414
Protestant Reformation, 32, 33
psychological theory, 93–95
psychological theory propositions, 94–95
psychology: behavioral, 94
discipline of human resource development and, 101–106
domains of performance and, 105
emerging foundational theories of, 103–105
Gestalt, 94, 102, 103, 180f, 182–184, 183f
human resource development and, 101–103
individual growth perspective in, 103–104
limits of, 105–106
meta-discipline of, 102
movements in, 101
schools in, 101
social, 104
quality of work life, 40–41
questions, interview, 372–373
rate of change, 25
Rasmussen, 278
reengineering, 171
reflection in action, 197
regiocentrism, 458
relationship management, 323f
Renaissance, 32–33
repatriates, 460
research: action, 40, 67–68, 296–299, 297f
community, emergence of, 48–49
survey, 40
theory development process as, 59–61
resistance: ambivalence and, 318
to change, 317–320
as cognitive and cultural restructuring, 319
as constructive counterbalance, 319
forms of, 318–320
nature of, 317–318
as political and class struggle, 318–319
as unavoidable behavioral response, 318
restraint, 454
Results Assessment System, 336–337, 392–393
return-on-investment (ROI): of human capital, 160–161
methodology process model, 387
robotics, 445
scarce resource theory, 91–92
scenario planning, 371–381, 376f–380f, 382–383
scenario stories, 374–375
science, technology, and innovation (STI), 407–408
screening theory of education, 113
sensitivities, 352f
sensory learning, 32
shallow knowledge, 257
simulated training, 439–443, 441, 442, 449
situational differences, 192, 193
Six Sigma, 172
social field, 67
socialization, 186
social learning, 180f, 185–186
social psychology, 104
social system of organizations, 104–105
societal growth, 192–193
sociology: general, 156f
industrial, 156f
sociotechnical systems theory, 315
stakeholder training, 243
standards, ethics and integrity, 26–27
stories, scenario, 374–375
strategic agenda, 378–381, 378f–379f
strategic capability, of human resource development, 367–369, 380–381
strategic change, 41
strategic perspective, 365–366
strategic planning, 367–368, 377–378, 378f
strategic roles, 358–371, 359f–360f, 364, 378–381, 378f–379f
strategic thinking, schools of, 358
strategy: emergent, 369–371, 381
examining, with scenarios, 375–376, 376f
expertise and, 361–362
human resource development as shaper of, 363–365
learning organization, 198–200
structure: cognitive, 66
psychological, 66
structured on-the-job training (S-OJT), 244, 244f
subject-matter differences, 192–193
subject-matter experts, 226–227, 268–269
subject-matter focus, in training and development, 230–231
subsystems, 18
supply and demand, 111
surveillance capitalism, 113–114
survey feedback, 40
survey research, 40
sustainable resource theory, 92
SWOT analysis, 368
system design, 169f
systems theory: anthropology vs., 62
behavior of systems in, 120
capabilities offered by, 121–122
change and, 120–121
change processes in, 120
as component of human resource development, 95–97
contributions of, 119f
defined, 117–118
direction provided by, 122–124, 124f
evolution of, 64
as fad, 123–124
as foundation for human resource development, 116–125, 119f, 124f
information provided by, 119–121
origins of, 18
performance and, 86
scope of, 117–118
structure of systems in, 119–120
support provided to human resource development by, 119–124, 124f
systems theory propositions, 96–97
Tavistock Clinic, 40–41
taxonomy of performance, 225–228, 226f
team building, cross-cultural, 346
team-focused training and development, 245–247, 245f
team-level performance models, 171–172
team problem solving, 273
technology: disruption and, 468–469
information, 205–218, 207f, 212f
instructional, 205
learning mediated by, 206
touch and, 469
teleological theory, 316, 316f
tension, 402–403
T-group, 39–40
theoretical foundations, 88–91, 90f
theory(ies): benefits of, 58
boundary, of applied discipline, 83
building, 58
contributing, for applied discipline, 84
core, 62
core, for applied discipline, 84
critical, 73–74
development process, 59
development process as research, 59–61
of human resource development, 84–97, 87f, 88f, 90f
importance of, 58
irrelevant, for applied discipline, 84
novel, for applied discipline, 84
philosophical metaphors for, 63–77
practice and, perspectives on, 81–82
requirements of, 61
rival, 81–82
shared, with other disciplines, 62
underlying human resource development, 61–63
useful, for applied discipline, 84
theory-research-development-practice cycle, 78–79, 78f
third country national (TCN), 458–459
threats, to excellent practice, 25–26
360-degree feedback, in organization development, 349–350, 347f–348f
tool use, in early history, 31
total-factor productivity, 111
training: competence-based, 212, 212f
cross-cultural, 459–460, 460, 462–463
defined, 224
education-training dichotomy, 225
government role in, in history, 35–36
laboratory, 39–40
manual, 33
military, 250–251
process-referenced, 275
simulated, 439–443, 441, 442, 449
in strategic planning, 367–368
structured on-the-job training, 244, 244f
training and development (T&D): career development and, 433–434
career growth, 231
core values through, 277–278
culture and, 267
delivery in, 269
development in, 224
education-training dichotomy, 225
expertise in, 229–230
individual-focused, 243–244, 244f
informal and incidental learning in, 228–229, 229f
information technology and, 270
instructional systems development in, 232–234, 233f
management and leadership, 230
mission and, 267
motivational, 230–231
multiple job holders requiring identical, 271
organizational learning in, 246–247
process for, general, 231–232
purpose of, 267
responsibilities in, 247
roles in, 247
single person requiring, 271
strategies, 229–231
subject matter focus of, 230–231
taxonomy of performance in, 225–228, 226f
terms in, 229–231
training for performance system in, 234–243, 235f–238f
training in, 224
work process-focused, 275–277, 276f, 277f
training and development (T&D) practices: core, 268–270
group-focused, 271–274
individual-focused, 271
organization-focused, 277–279
subject-matter experts and, 268–269
transfer of learning to workplace and, 269–270
variations in, 267–268
training for performance system (TPS): analysis in, 235–236
design in, 237–238
development in, 238–239
evaluation in, 241–242
implementation in, 240–241
leading training and development process in, 242–243
outputs of training in, 242
process of training in, 242–243
stakeholder training in, 243
in training and development, 234–243, 235f–238f
whole-part-whole learning model in, 237–238, 238f
Training within Industry (TWI), 37, 38, 85
transformational learning, 197–198
tunneling, 346
uncertainty avoidance, 348f, 454
valences, 66
value chain, 403–404
values: cultural, 347f–348f
defined, 476
demographics and, 477
middle class and, 477
minorities and, 477
women and, 477
video-based training simulations, 439–440
virtual organizations, 206–208, 207f
virtual reality (VR)-based training simulations, 440–442, 441, 442, 449
weakness, 352f
WebQuest, 215
white space performance model, 162, 164f–165f, 165–166
whole-part-whole learning model, 237–238, 238f
whole systems learning, 130, 131f
women, 477
work adjustment theory, 332
work capacity, 70–71
work organizations, transformation of contemporary, 41–42
workplace learning, 195–197, 195f
work process theories, 326–328, 327f
workshops, 373–374
World War I, 36–37