INDEX
Page numbers followed by f or t indicate figures and tables, respectively.
A
Abe, Shinzō, 389
Abstraction, level of, 467, 467f
Acemoglu, Daron, 71
ACS (Additional Crisis Surcharge), 296
Active labor market policies (ALMPs), 396, 398, 405–406
Adam Smith Institute (ASI), 249
ADB (Asian Development Bank), 175
Additional Crisis Surcharge (ACS), 296
Administered space, 48
Administrative Appeals Tribunal (Australia), 169
Administrative centralization, 84–85
Administrative Litigation Law (China), 256
Administrative officials/civil servants, 196
“Administrative Responsibility and Accountability” (Australia), 169
Administrative Review Committee (Australia), 169
Administrative science, 465
Advocates (civil servant), 154
AFPs (Administradoras de Fondo de Pensiones), 383–385, 405
Africa:
civil service system in, 189
colonial governments in, 21
colonization of, 67
communism experiments in, 116
corporate/collective orientation of, 27–28
governmental structure in, 59
liberal democratic systems in, 99
nation building in, 90
new public management in, 175–177
personalist bureaucratic elite systems in, 117
political systems in, 108
polyarchal competitive systems in, 116
populist political systems in, 99
presidential system in, 114
separation of church and state in, 87
single-party systems in, 101
state creation in, 73
subnational jurisdiction in, 60
traditional inegalitarian political systems in, 99
tribal societies in, 28
Western views of, 80
Zimbabwean land reform, 322–324
African National Congress (ANC), 247
African Union (AU), 262
AFTA (Arab Free Trade Area), 334
Agaf Modiin (Directorate of Intelligence), 227–229
Agranat Commission of Inquiry, 228
Agricultural Revolution, 135
Agriculture:
in Morocco, 335
Algeria, 100
Algerian rebellion (1954–1962), 222–223
Aliens Law of 1965 (Germany), 265
Allbaugh, Joseph, 232
Allègre, Claude, 370
Allen, Paul, 131
Alliance capitalism, 315
ALMPs, see Active labor market policies
AMAN (Directorate of Intelligence), 227–229
Amazon region, 327
“American exceptionalism,” 453
American Public Administration Theory, 78
American Revolution, 100
Americas, 114
Amsterdam Treaty, 267
Analysis, 5
Analytic-methodological research, 444–445
ANC (African National Congress), 247
Anglo-American countries:
civil service system in, 189
liberal democracy in, 110
New Public Management in, 213
polyarchal competitive systems in, 116
stability of, 112
Anglo-American family of nations, 432, 433
Anglo-Saxon tradition, 167
Angola, 99
Annan, Kofi, 263
Annual performance plan (PAP), 371
Apartheid, 245
APS (Pension Solidarity Complement), 385
APU (Assessment of Performance Unit), 378
Aquileia, Italy, 36
Arab Free Trade Area (AFTA), 334
Arabian peninsula:
no-party systems in, 100
traditional inegalitarian political systems in, 99
Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice, 267
Argentina:
health care in, 357–360, 399–400
new public management in, 180
Arnim, Bettina von, 136
Ashkenazis, 226
ASI (Adam Smith Institute), 249
Asia:
civil service system in, 189
collectivism in, 144
decolonization of, 67
new public management in, 173–175
parliamentary system in, 114
political systems in, 108
separation of church and state in, 87
subnational jurisdiction in, 59, 60, 60t
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 175
Asia-Pacific region, 110
Assessment of Performance Unit (APU), 378
Assistance pensions (pensiones asistenciales, PASIS), 384, 385
Association(s), 17–18. See also Government(s)
meaning of, in development of humanity, 23
science of, 23
Associational coordination structures, 25
Assyrian empire, 52
Atlantic phase, of first imperial age, 67
Atlantic Revolutions, 9, 86, 89
AU (African Union), 262
Aucoin, Peter, 163
Australia:
corporate/collective orientation of, 27
liberal democratic systems in, 99
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
nation building in, 90
new public management in, 168–169
political reform capacity of, 104
public sector employees in, 200
and rule-taking, 418
separation of church and state in, 87
subnational jurisdiction in, 60
tribal societies in, 28
Australian Health Care Agreements, 363
Austria:
political parties in, 101
religious tax in, 88
state-church relations in, 88
subnational jurisdiction in, 56
Authentic meaning, of concepts, 468
Authoritarian-inegalitarian political systems, 99
Authority:
and community, 44
legal, 206
political systems based on, 98
territoriality defined in terms of, 87–88
Autogestion, 44
B
Baden-Wüttemberg, Germany, 53
Baganda, 28
Bahrain, 100
Baladur, Édouard, 224
Balance of payments, 333
Baltics, 110
communal life in, 109
in stage model, 26
Bangkok, Thailand, 48
Bank of Canada, 340
Bank of Japan, 446
Barak, 229
Barco, Virgilio, 239
Barker, Ernest, 412
Barr, M. D., 354
Basic Law (Germany, 1949), 265
Basic Pension (BP, Japan), 387–388
Basic Solidarity Pension (BSP), 385
Batavian (Dutch) Republic, 86
Bayesian learning, 416
BAZ (automobile manufacturer), 336
BEACH (Bettering the Evaluation and Care of Health) program, 363–364
Behavioral approach, 457t
Beijing, China, 258
Belfield, C. R., 367
Belgium, 88, 295–298, 305, 307
Bentley, Arthur, 23
Berlin Wall, collapse of, 223
Best practices, 428, 437, 445–446
Bettering the Evaluation and Care of Health (BEACH) program, 363–364
Beveridge Report, 382, 387, 398
Bible, 409
Bill of Rights (South Africa), 248
Blakenhurst Prison (UK), 250
Blanco, Kathleen Babineaux, 234
Block grants, 369
Blondel, J., 98, 99, 101, 430–431
Bodin, Jean, 443
Bogotá, Colombia, 237, 238, 241–242
Bok, Derek, 453
Bold-state, 78
Bonaparte, 91
Boserup, Esther, 30
Bouckaert, Geert, 104–105, 430
Boulding, Kenneth, 440
Boundaries:
flexible vs. inflexible, 46
BP (Basic Pension, Japan), 387–388
Brabant, Netherlands, 53
Braithwaite, J., 418
Branches of democratic government, 118–120
Brazil:
land reform in, 345
new public management in, 180
pendulum system in, 118
planning and zoning in, 327–330
Brinkman, John, 31
Brown, Michael, 235
BSP (Basic Solidarity Pension), 385
Buchanan, Alan, 43
Budget decentralization, 166
Budgeting, performance, 165
Bureaucracy(-ies), 129–156. See also Personnel system(s); Political-administrative systems
benefits and drawbacks of, 131–132
features of, 121
fragmented nature of, 122, 126
government departments, 120–126
maladministration/corruption potential of, 187–188
and organizational culture, 146–152
parallel, 116
and perceptions of public individuals, 152–155, 152t–153t
persistence of, 133–134, 137–138
physical expressions of, 151
similarities between, 159
and societal culture, 138–140, 141t–142t, 143–146
Bureaucracy-democracy paradox, 80–81
Bureaucratic boxes, 151
Bureaucratic coordination structures, 25
Bureaucratic organizations, 41–42
Bureaucratic-prominent political systems, 115–118
“Bureaucratic Structure and Personality” (Merton), 133
Bureaucratization:
as top-down process, 109
Bureaucrat-slaves, 137
Bureauphiles (civil servant), 154
Bureautics, 154
Bureautolerants (civil servant), 154
Bush, George H. W., and administration, 232
Bush, George W., and administration:
and Moroccan trade policy, 335
Businesses, 131
Byzantium, 87
C
CADs (Centros Automáticos de Despacho), 238
CAG (Comparative Administrative Group), 436, 448
CAIs (Centros de Atención Inmediata), 238
Cali, Colombia, 238
California:
energy management in, 317–319, 345, 348
school voucher referenda, 368
California Power Exchange (PX), 318
California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC), 317
Canada:
Civil Service Act in, 204
judicial review in, 119
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
and Mexican industry/trade policies, 341
nation building in, 90
new public management in, 169–170
political reform capacity of, 104
public sector employees in, 204
Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (CUSFTA), 338, 339
Canadian Labor Congress, 339
Capital gains, 301
CAPS (primary health care centers), 360
Caracalla, 89
Card, Andrew, 232
Career civil servants, 195–198
administrative officials/civil servants, 196
educational personnel, 197–198
laborers/blue-collar workers, 196–197
technical and professional personnel, 196
uniformed medical personnel, 197
Caribbean, 110
Carter report (UK), 252
Carthage, 36
Cash balance (CB) pension plan, 388
Castles, F. G., 432, 433, 469–470
Catherine the Great, czar of Russia, 86
CB (cash balance) pension plan, 388
CCP, see Chinese Communist Party
CDU (Christian Democratic Union), 268
CEE (Central and Eastern European) countries, 390
Central Africa, 34
Central America, 117
Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries, 390
Central Committee on the Reform of the Educational System (China), 374
Central Europe, 189
Centralization bias, 27–28, 103, 103t
Centralized governance phase, 34
Centralized states, 35
Centrally planned economies (CPEs), 298
Central place theory, 35
Central planning, 369
Central Provident Fund (CPF), 351–353
CFPs (Community Policing Forums), 246
CGS (chief of the general staff, Israel), 226, 230
Charlemagne, 52
Charter schools, 364
Chernobyl nuclear disaster (1986), 316
Cheung, Bing, 173
Chief of the general staff (CGS, Israel), 226, 230
Chilcote, R. H., 456
Childe, Vere Gordon, 30
China:
centralized systems in, 35
as Double Hierarchy Model, 116
egalitarian-authoritarian systems in, 99
emergence of states in, 26
judicial reform in, 273
laws of, 38
mandarins' status in, 193
and Moroccan trade policy, 334–335
new public management in, 173
subnational jurisdiction in, 60
Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 255–258, 372, 374
Chirac, Jacques, 224
Christaller, Walter, 35
Christian Democratic Union (CDU), 268
Christian Democrats (Netherlands), 355
CIS, see Commonwealth of Independent States
CIT (corporate income tax), 299–301
CITs (countries in transition), 298
Citizen Corps (FEMA branch), 235
Citizen functionaries, 195
Citizens, 153t
“Citizens' Charter” (United Kingdom), 166
and awareness of performance of public services, 163–164
future of, 95
local, 23
City, 38
and collapse of upper-local regimes, 36–37
defined, 25
in political evolution, 33
Civil defense, 232
Civil Defense Act of 1950, 231
Civil law, 255
Civil rights, 93
as bureaucrats, 130
in different cultures, 465
Civil service system, 66, 188, 191, 198, 198t–199t, 200, 201t, 202t
Civil wars, 261
Civitates, 52
Clausing, K. A., 340
Clientelist coordination structures, 25
Climbers (civil servant), 154
Clinton, Bill, and administration, 214, 233
Closure citizenship, 93
CNRS (French Research Council), 370
Cohen, M. N., 453
Cold War:
FEMA and, 232
France and end of, 225
French interests in, 223
and German immigration, 265
German immigration issues and end of, 267
UN Security Council and end of, 261, 262
Collapsed states, 77
Collective bargaining, 216, 281
Collective level of analysis, 5, 7
Collective power strategies, 27
Collectivist cultures, 143–144
Collectivization, 277
Collegial bureaucratic elite regime, 118
Collegial bureaucratic system, 117
Colombia:
community policing in, 236
police reform in, 237, 240–242, 271
public sector employees in, 200
Command and Staff College (Israel), 229
Commodification, 43
Commons, 8
Common Agricultural Policy, 278
Common-law system, 119
Common pool resource management (CPR) systems, 20, 26n.4, 28, 63
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS):
natural gas prices in, 315
Communism, 277
Communist totalitarian systems, 116
Community(-ies):
and authority, 44
imagined, 20
industrial vs. physical, 65
local, see Local communities and associations
rural vs. urban, 56
Community policing, 236, 270–271
Community Policing Forums (CFPs), 246
Comparative administration, 435, 436. See also Comparative public administration
Comparative Administrative Group (CAG), 436, 448
Comparative governance, 454–458
Comparative government studies, 407–425
and future of nation-state, 418–421
and interconnectedness of modern world, 411–414
need for and development of, 427–428
old vs. new institutions, 409–411
and public administration, 430–448
and transfer/diffusion, 414–417
Comparative perspective, 2, 3, 8–10, 13
Comparative Politics (Freeman), 429
Comparative public administration, 431, 454–458
Comparative research (in general), 450–454
application problems in, 473–474
comparative/linguistic/semantic problems in, 465–468
methods of comparison in, 458–461
research technical problems in, 472–473
theoretical/methodological problems in, 468–472
types of comparison in, 461–464, 463f
Competition Act (Netherlands), 354
Competitive Transition Charge (CTC), 318
Complex social organizations, 63
Compulsory enlistment, 226
Comte, Auguste, 445
Conceptual stretching, 466–468, 466f
Concordat of Worms (1122), 87
Confederal political systems, 102, 103
Confederation of Swedish Employers, 397
Confederation of Swedish Enterprise (Svenskt Näringsliv), 398
Configurational method, 459, 461
Confronted authority, 150t, 151
Congress, U.S., 234
Conquest, 49
Conscription:
in Israel, 226
Consensual systems, 101–102, 113, 114
Conservative Party (Colombia), 237
Conservative Party (Denmark), 294
Conservative Party (UK), 166, 249, 273, 378, 380
Conservers (civil servant), 154
Constitution(s), 255
Constitutional level of analysis, 5
Constitution of the People' Republic of China, 258
Construction sector, 281
Consumer cities, 151
Consumption taxes, 296
Contrasting contexts, 464
Cooperative farms, 277
Cooperative federalism, 102
Corporate income tax (CIT), 299–301
Corporate power strategies, 27
Corporate taxes, 308
in China, 259
in India, 321
in Russia, 313
Corruption perception index, 189, 190t
Countermapping, 44
Countries in transition (CITs), 298
CPEs (centrally planned economies), 298
CPF (Central Provident Fund), 351–353
CPR systems, see Common pool resource management systems
CPUC (California Public Utilities Commission), 317
Criminal Justice Act of 1991 (UK), 249, 251
Criminal Justice Act of 2003 (UK), 252
Criminal Justice and Court Services Act of 2000 (UK), 251
Crisis management, 233
Crosland, Anthony, 377
Cross-level analysis, 462
Cross-national research, 461–462, 470
Cross-policy comparison, 463
Cross-sectional comparisons, 470
CTC (Competitive Transition Charge), 318
Culture(s):
feminine, 144
high-context, 139
Hofstede's characterization of, 141t–142t
individualist, 143
long-term, 145
low-context, 139
masculine, 144
monochromic, 139
polychromic, 139
societal, 138–140, 141t–142t, 143–146
CUSFTA (Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement), 338, 339
Czech Republic, 119, 335–338, 347
D
Data, 472
Data collection, 470
Data fixation, 440
Davies, J. C., 138
Dawkins, Richard, 87
Dayan, Moshe, 227
DB pension systems, see Defined-benefit pension systems
DC pension systems, see Defined-contribution pension systems
Decentralization:
and Chinese educational system, 374
and French educational system, 369–370
in UK, 166
Declaration of Independence of 1776 (United States), 90
Declaration of the Rights of Man (France), 90
Decolonization, 67–68, 183, 436
Deevy, Edward, 45
Defense, national, see National defense
Defense Army of Israel Ordinance No. 4, 225
Defense White Paper (France), 224
Defined Benefit (DB)
Occupational Pension
Act, 388
Defined-benefit (DB) pension systems, 382, 388, 404
Defined-contribution (DC) pension systems, 382, 388, 404
Deforestation:
in Brazil, 329
De Gaulle, Charles, 223
Dekker Committee, 355
De la Mare, Nicolas, 39
Delimitation (in boundary setting), 50
Delineation (in boundary setting), 50
Demarcation (in boundary setting), 50
branches of government and core features of, 118–120
hybrid presidential-parliamentary, 114, 115t
liberal democratic political systems, 99
presidential vs. parliamentary, 113–114, 115t
Deng Xiaoping, 373
Denizens, 94
Denmark:
corporatism in, 406
corruption index of, 189
judicial review in, 119
public sector employees in, 200
religious tax in, 88
schools, 88
state religion in, 87
tax systems in, 292–295, 305, 308–309
Departmentalization, 64
Department of Defense, U.S. (DOD), 232
Department of Homeland Security, U.S. (DHS), 233–235, 269–270
Department of Safety and Security (South Africa), 246
Department of Water Resources (DWR, California), 319
Descriptive comparisons, 443–444
Despotic power, 79
De Tocqueville, Alexis, 23, 65
Devaquet, Alain, 370
Developing countries:
economic reforms in, 436
high power distance in, 140
public administration studies for, 448
and Washington Consensus, 276
Development, 448
Development administration, 435–436
DHS, see Department of Homeland Security, U.S.
Differentiated integration, 425
Diffusion, of policies, 414–417
Diocletian, 52
Directorate of Intelligence (AMAN, Agaf Modiin), 227–229
Directorate of Intelligence (Mossad branch), 229
Djibouti, 100
DOD (U.S. Department of Defense), 232
Dollar, as foreign exchange currency, 288
Dollar, Canadian, 340
Dominant-party mobilization system, 116
Dominant-party semicompetitive systems, 116
Double Hierarchy Model, 116
Drahos, P., 418
Dropout rates, 365
Drug trafficking, 239, 241, 242
Dual federalism, 102
Dual income taxation, 294
Dublin Convention, 267
Dunleavy, Patrick, 131
Dutch Competition Authority (NMa), 354
Dutch Health Care Inspectorate (IGZ), 356–357, 399
Dutch Republic of the Seven United Provinces, 100
DWR (California Department of Water Resources), 319
E
Earl, Anthony, 365
Earth, commodification of, 43
East Anglia (kingdom), 48
East Asia, 99
East Central Europe, 110
Eastern Europe:
civil service system in, 189
egalitarian-authoritarian systems in, 99
new public management in, 177–179
political systems in, 108
tax systems after fall of Soviet Union, 298–299
East Germany (GDR), 265
Eaton, Dorman, 445
ECB, see European Central Bank
Ecological/environmental tax reform (ETR), 292–295
Economic and financial services, 276
tax systems compared with, 302–309
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), 261, 263
Economic Stability Plan of 1985 (Israel), 230
ECOSOC (Economic and Social Council), 261, 263
health care and social services compared with, 398–406
in People's Republic of China, 372–376
in Spain, 283
in United Kingdom, 376–381, 401, 402
in United States, 401
Education Act (UK, 1902), 376
Education Act (UK, 1944), 377
Education Act (UK, 1980), 378
Education Act (UK, 1992), 379
Educational personnel, 197–198
Education Reform Act of 1988 (ERA, United Kingdom), 378–379
Education services, 88
Egalitarian-authoritarian political systems, 99
Egypt:
centralized systems in dynastic period, 35
civil uprising in, 100
emergence of states in, 25
laws of, 38
political parties in, 116
provinces in ancient, 52
single-party dominance in, 101
Eisenhower, Dwight, and administration, 287
Eisenstadt, Shmuel, 447
Eldercare, 352
Elderfund, 352
Elderly, 386
Electricity Act (India), 320, 321
Electricity Feed-In Law (Germany), 316
Electricity generation, 345
Electricity regulation:
Electricity Regulatory Commissions Act (India), 320
Electricity Supply Act (India), 320
Electric Utility Industry Restructuring Act (California), 318
Elites:
in democracies, 113
use of exclusive political and economic institutions by, 72
Emergency Obligatory Medical Program (PMOE, Argentina), 359, 360
Emergency Preparedness and Response (EP&R) Directorate, 234
Employee Pension Insurance (EPI, Japan), 387
Employees' Federation (Israel), 171
Employee's Pension Fund (EPF, Japan), 387, 388
Employment, 297, 298, 307. See also Unemployment
Employment policy, 295
Employment protection legislation (EPL), 279, 282
EMU, see European Monetary Union
Enabling framework states, 81
Enabling states, 81
Endogenous state making models, 84–85
in California, 317–319, 345, 348
planning/zoning and industry/trade compared with, 344–348
Energy Supply Industry Act of December 1935 (Germany), 315
England. See also Great Britain amateur government in, 85
colonization by, 67
education in, 376
nation building in, 90
schools, 88
as stateless society, 79
state religion in, 87
upper-local political regimes in, 30
Englebert, Pierre, 80
English-French state making pattern, 84
English state making model, 84–85
Enlistment, compulsory, 226
Enron, 321
Ensuring states, 81
Environmental resources, 155
Environmental taxes, 292–295, 308–309
EPF (Employee's Pension Fund), 387, 388
EPI (Employee Pension Insurance), 387
Epistemological fragmentation in study of public administration, 440–442
EPL (employment protection legislation), 279, 282
EP&R (Emergency Preparedness and Response) Directorate, 234
ERA (Education Reform Act of 1988), 378–379
Ersson, S. O., 114
Escuelas de Seguridad (Security Schools), 241
ESI (German Energy Supply Industry), 315
Esping-Andersen, G., 430
Essex (kingdom), 48
Ethics, 216
Ethnicity, 438
Ethnocentrism, 448
ETR (ecological/environmental tax reform), 292–295
EU, see European Union
Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, 334
Europe. See also Eastern Europe; Western Europe
and 2008-2009 financial crisis, 303
“dark age” in, 29
public sector employees in, 204
as source of public administration models, 446
sovereign units in medieval, 48
state and bureaucracy in, 79
state making in, 82
states in, 82
territorial states in, 82
and UN Security Council power, 262
European Central Bank (ECB):
and Greek economic crisis, 285–287
and Spanish economic policy, 280
European Commission, 474
energy tax policy, 294
and Greek economic crisis, 285
European Financial Stability Facility, 304
European Free Trade Association, 334
European interstate system, 66
European Monetary Union (EMU):
and 2008-2009 financial crisis, 303
and Greek economic crisis, 284, 285
and Spanish economic policy, 280
European Union (EU):
and 2008-2009 financial crisis, 303
actors in, 80
and agricultural reform in Romania, 278, 279
federalism in, 465
and German immigration issues, 268
and globalization, 185
and Greek economic crisis, 285
international dimension in, 84
local governments in, 62
and Moroccan trade policy, 334
and national identity, 474
new public management in, 168
public sector employees in, 200
refugee/asylum policy, 267
and Spanish economic policy, 280
tax cuts in, 295
Eurozone:
and 2008-2009 financial crisis, 303
combined budget deficit (2013), 287
and Spanish economic policy, 280
Evolutionary biology, sociobiology, and anthropology, 24–25
Evolutionary theory, 445
Exclusionary power strategies, 27
Exogenous state making models, 83–84
Exports:
and Greek economic crisis, 285
and Iranian economy, 289
and Mexican industry/trade policies, 342–343
Extended family organization, 148
Extension of concepts, 466–468
External colonization, 66
Extractive organizations, 136
F
Factions, 100
FAMP (Frontier and Mounted Police), 244
Farmer program (Romania), 278
Farrell, W. C., 368
Fast Track Land Reform Program (FTLRP), 323
Fauré, Edgar, 369
FDC (funded defined contribution), 391, 392
FDI, see Foreign direct investment
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 231–236, 269–270
The Federalist, 443
Federal states, 102–105, 103t, 104t, 106t–107t, 108
Federation of Danish Industry, 293
Feed-In Law (Germany), 316
Fee-for-service (FFC) payments, 355
Feinstein, Yuval, 83
FEMA, see Federal Emergency Management Agency
Feminine cultures, 144
Fernández-Kelly, P., 343
Feudal system, 48
FFC (fee-for-service) payments, 355
Fiji, 117
Financial crisis (2007–2008), 280–282, 303–304
Financial services, see Economic and financial services
Finer, Samuel, 447
Finland, 56
corruption index of, 189
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
political reform capacity of, 104
public sector employees in, 200, 204
religious tax in, 88
Finnemore, Martha, 416
First Amendment, 366
First imperial age, 67
First-order formal objects, 455
Fisher Education Act of 1918, 377
Flannery, Kent, 32n.11
Flat income tax, 299, 300, 302
Focal Site Strategy (Laos), 330
Ford Foundation, 436
Foreign direct investment (FDI):
and Czech industrial/trade policies, 336–338
and Greek economic crisis, 285
and Laotian land policy, 330
Foreign Office (Israel), 227, 228
Forestry Law (Laos), 331
Formal governments, 21–22, 22t, 95
Formal objects, 455
Fourteenth Amendment, 366
France:
church-controlled schools in, 88
citizen identification in, 93
Civil Service Act in, 204
colonization by, 67
decentralization in, 103
Declaration of the Rights of Man, 90
education in, 368–372, 402–403
federalism in, 465
feudal system of, 48
immigration issues, 264
king's power in Middle Ages, 83–84
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
multiparty system in, 101
new public management in, 167
political appointees in, 194–195
political reform capacity of, 104
separation of church and state in, 86, 88
state-church relations in, 88
status of civil servants in, 193
subnational jurisdiction in, 56
as Westminster system, 114
Freedom of religion, 366
Freeman, Edward E., 429
Free market:
and French educational system, 370
and state action, 276
Free-rider effect, 358, 362, 398
Free trade agreements (FTAs), 335, 339, 340
Frente Nacional (National Front, Colombia), 238, 240
Friedman, Milton, 364
Frontier and Mounted Police (FAMP), 244
FSR (Solidarity Redistribution Fund), 359
FTAs, see Free trade agreements
FTLRP (Fast Track Land Reform Program), 323
Fuerza Pública (Colombia), 239
Fuest, C., 307
Fukuyama, Francis, 13
Funded defined contribution (FDC), 391, 392
G
GAO, See Government Accountability Office (GAO)
GARACES (Committee on Analysis and Research on Activities and Costs in Higher Education), 369
Garson, G. D., 162
Gas, see natural gas
Gasoline, 292
Gaston, N., 339
Gates, Bill, 131
GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), 341
GDP, 307
GDR (East Germany), 265
General Accounting Office (GAO), 232, 234–236
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 341
General-purpose governments, 22, 61
Geneva Convention on Refugees, 264
Geographic fragmentation, 432–435
German Energy Supply Industry (ESI), 315
German-French state making pattern, 85
Germanic family of nations, 432, 433
German state making pattern, 84
Germany:
citizen identification in, 93
and Dutch health care system, 354–355
and economic crisis of 2007–2009, 282
energy management in, 345
federalism in, 465
judicial review in, 119
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
local government studies, 446
municipal amalgamations in, 53
new public management in, 167
parliamentary system in, 114
political appointees in, 194–195
political reform capacity of, 104, 105
public sector employees in, 200, 204
religious tax in, 88
response to 2007-2008 financial crisis, 304
status of civil servants in, 193
Ghana, 176
Giuffrida, Louis, 232
Global challenges, 92
Global comparisons, 445
Globalization, 1–4, 6–7, 184–186, 412, 413
executive pay and, 112
and structural convergence, 473–474
The Gods Must be Crazy, 155
Goldman Sachs, 284
Goodin, R. E., 430
Goodnow, Frank, 203
Gordon, Scott, 203
Gould, D. M., 340
Governance:
actors responsible for, 80
multilevel/multiactor, 126–128
Government(s). See also Political-administrative systems
characteristics of modern, 410–411
development of thinking about, 37–39
general- and specific-purpose, 22
global model of development, 32–37, 32f
intertwining of society and, 18
multilevel/multiactor, 126–128
perception vs. reality, 147t
phases in development of, 33–34
relations with populations, 38
traditional activities of, See specific headings, e.g.: National defense
Government Accountability Office (GAO), 232, 234–236
Governmental fortresses, 151
Government departments, 120–126
Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA), 165
GPRA (Government Performance and Results Act), 165
Grammar schools, 376
Grand theories, 12, 454–455, 471
Great Britain, 189, 191, 320, 402. See also England; United Kingdom
Great Cultural Revolution, 373
Greece:
collegial bureaucratic elite system in, 117
economic and financial services in, 283–287
new public management in, 167
public sector employees in, 204
Greek financial crisis (2009), 281, 304
Greene, J. P., 367
Greenfeld, Liah, 91
Green taxation, 293–294. See also Environmental taxes
Gregory VII, Pope, 87
Group 4 Remand Services Ltd., 249–250
Group of Four (G4), 262
Guerrilla groups/warfare, 238, 239
Guest workers, 265
Gun control, 133
H
Haas, Jonathan, 27
Halfway-state, 78
Hallpike, Christopher, 27
Haque, M. S., 173
Hashemite regime, 28
Hassan, Fekri, 135
Heady, Ferrell, 10, 115–116, 118–121, 432
in Argentina, 357–360, 399–400
education and social services compared with, 398–406
Health Care Inspectorate (IGZ, Netherlands), 356–357
Health Care Prices Act (Netherlands, 1982), 355
Health insurance, 352
Health Insurance Act of 2006 (HIA, Netherlands), 355, 356
Health Insurance Commission (Australia), 361
Health insurance premiums, 361, 362
Health Regulation Division (Singapore), 353
Health Sciences Authority (HSA, Singapore), 353
Health services, 88
Hegel, W.F., 191
Hellas, 36
Heritage Foundation, 365
Herotodus, 443
HIA (Health Insurance Act of 2006), 355, 356
Hierarchy(-ies), 146
High-context cultures, 139
Higher education:
High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Change (HLP), 263
Himalayas, 99
Hisdai, Yaacov, 228
Historical-diffusions approach, 471–472
Hittite city-states, 36
HLP (High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Change), 263
HM Prison Service, 249
Hofstede, Geert, 139–148, 141t–142t
Hollow state, 80
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 134
Holocaust, 265
Homeland system, 245
Home Office, 248, 249, 251, 252
Homicides, 239
Hong Kong, 119
Hope, K. R., Sr., 176
Hospitals, 88
Hot spots, biodiversity, 345
Hoxby, C. M., 367
HRM, see Human resource management
HRM (human resource management), 206–217, 437
HSA (Health Sciences Authority), 353
Human capital, 305
Human communities, 17–19. See also Local communities and associations
Human resource management (HRM), 206–217, 437
in developed countries, 206, 207t–208t, 209–217
at organizational level, 211–213
and societal environment, 215–217
Hume, David, 441
Humphrey, Hubert H., 350
Hungary, 390
Hunter-gatherer phase, 33, 108
Hurricane Andrew, 232
Hurricane Katrina, 234–235, 270, 368
Hyden, Goran, 108
I
n, ICD (Independent Complaints Directorate), 248
Ideology, 456
IDF (Israel Defense Forces), 225–230, 269
IGZ (Dutch Health Care Inspectorate), 356–357, 399
IGZ (Health Care Inspectorate), 356–357
ILF (In Larger Freedom), 263
Illegal immigration, 344
Illiberal democracies, 110
Imagined communities, 20
Imerina, 28
IMF, see International Monetary Fund
IMF (International Monetary Fund), 176
Immigration:
and Mexican industry/trade policies, 344
social cleavages resulting from, 112
and Spanish employment rates, 280
Immigration management, 94
Immigration Review Tribunal (Australia), 169
Imperialism, 245
Import substitution, 333
Inclusive state, 80
Income taxes:
in Europe and Central Asia, 299
INCRA (National Institute for Colonization and Agrarian Reform), 328, 329
Independent Complaints Directorate (ICD), 248
Independent power producers (IPPs, India), 321
Independent System Operator (ISO), 318
India:
dominant-party semicompetitive systems, 116
emergence of states in, 25
energy management in, 319–321, 345
liberal democratic systems in, 99
Indian Electricity Act, 320
Indian subcontinent, 28
Indirect taxation, 300
Individualist cultures, 143
Individual mandate, 355
Industrial communities, 65
Industrial upgrading, 334
in Czech Republic, 335–338, 347
energy management and planning/zoning compared with, 344–348
Industry Commission (Australia), 169
Inflation:
and Canadian trade policy, 339
and social security in Poland, 390
and Spanish economic policy, 280
Information revolution, 424
Infrastructural power, 79
INGOs (international nongovernmental organizations), 185–186
In Larger Freedom (ILF), 263
Institute for Intelligence and Special Tasks (Mossad), 227–229
Institutional superstructure of governments:
political and administrative, 97. See also Political-administrative systems
and political regime change, 30
Intelligence gathering, 227–229
Intension of concepts, 466, 467
Interdisciplinary comparative study, 442
Interest, 289
Interest rates, 340
Interim Constitution for the Republic of South Africa, 245
defense and judiciary compared with, 268–274
Internal Stability Division (ISD), 247
International boundaries, 48–51
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 176
Eastern European adjustment programs, 299
and Greek economic crisis, 285
and Moroccan trade policy, 333
and tax reform, 306
International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), 185–186
International organizations, 34
Internet, 424
Intramunicipal special-purpose authorities, 62
Investiture Struggle, 87
In-work tax credit, 297
IPPs (independent power producers), 321
Iran:
economic and financial services in, 287–291, 304–305
as neo-traditional system, 117
as ortho-traditional system, 117
Iranian Revolution (1979), 288, 289
Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), 289
Iraq, 100
Ireland:
and economic crisis of 2007-2009, 282
judicial review in, 119
sovereign units of, 48
“Iron law of oligarchy,” 113
ISD (Internal Stability Division), 247
Islam, 379
Islamic Revolution (Iran, 1979), 288, 289
ISO (Independent System Operator), 318
Israel:
constituting documents of, 111
governmental structure of, 123f–125f, 126
liberal democratic systems in, 99
multiparty system in, 101
new public management in, 171–172
parliamentary system in, 114
Italy:
hospitals in, 88
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
new public management in, 167
public sector employees in, 204
state-church relations in, 88
Itemistic method, 445
ITERPA, 328
IUTs (Institut universitaire de technologie; university institutes of technology), 371
J
Jahrbuch für Europäische Verwaltungsgeschichte, 462
Jamaica, 114
Japan:
collectivism in, 144
Europe as source of public administration models for, 446
feudal system of, 48
judicial review in, 119
liberal democratic systems in, 99
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
social security in, 386–390, 404
Japan Employers' Association (JEA), 387
JEA (Japan Employers' Association), 387
Jiang Zemin, 257
Job bureaucrats (civil servant), 154
Jordan, 100
Jospin, Lionel, 370
Judiciary system, 118–120, 254
defense and police systems compared with, 268–274
Jurisdictions, 8
Jus sanguinis, 264
K
KAS (Kontant arbetsmarknadsstod), 395
Kennedy, John F., 214
Kent (kingdom), 48
Kiser, Larry, 5
Knesset, 225
Kontant arbetsmarknadsstod (KAS), 395
Kuhlmann, Sabine, 430
Kuwait, 100
L
Labor:
control of, 46
Labor costs:
and Canadian trade policy, 339
and Estonian tax policy, 302
and Greek economic crisis, 285
Labor market programs, 394–398
Labor Party (UK), 378
Labor unions:
political parties and, 101
in Spain, 281
in Sweden, 397
Lagash, 36
Laissez-faire economics, 276
Lancaster House agreement, 322
Land and Forest Allocation Policy (Laos), 331
Landless Workers' Movement (Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra [MST]) and, 327–328
Land reform:
Land Statute of 1964 (Brazil), 327
Land Use Planning and Land Allocation program (LUPLA), 331–332
Lange, Matthew, 25
Language, 438
Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP), 330
Laos:
as Double Hierarchy Model, 116
land reform in, 345
planning and zoning in, 330–332
Large power distance, 140
Latin America. See also specific countries
corporate/collective orientation of, 27
liberal democracy in, 110
municipalities in, 59
new public management in, 179–182
personalist bureaucratic elite system in, 117
police reform in, 237
policy implementation in, 436–437
political systems in, 108
separation of church and state in, 87
state creation in, 73
territorial states in, 82
and Washington Consensus, 276
Latin family of nations, 432, 433
La Violencia (the Violence), 237, 238
Law 32/1984, 281
Law and Administration Ordinance (Israel), 225
Law for Protection and Promotion of Foreign Investment (Iran), 290
Layer-cake federalism, 102
LEAs, see Local Education Authorities
Learning, 7
Lebanon, 100
Lebanon War (1982), 229
Lee, E. W., 173
Lefebvre, Henri, 44
Les Miserables (Victor Hugo), 85–86
Levin, H. M., 367
Leys, W.A.R., 203
Liberal Conservatives (Netherlands), 355
Liberal democracy, 99, 109, 110
Liberal Party (Colombia), 237
Liberal Party (Denmark), 294
Libya, 100
LIC (Low Intensity Conflict), 230
Lifetime Health Cover (Australia), 362
Lijphart, Arend, 102, 104, 113
Limburg, Netherlands, 53
Lindblom, Charles, 139
Lipset, Seymour Martin, 113
Literacy, 64
LMW (Local Management of Schools), 379
Local communities and associations, 17–18, 23–29
and collapse of upper-local regimes, 36–37
dependence of upper-level regimes on, 29
evolutionary biology/sociobiology/anthropology view of, 24–25
as formalized local governments with jurisdictional boundaries, 21–22, 21t
lack of research on, 29
political theory concerning, 23–25
Local curiosities, 151
Local Education Authorities (LEAs), 376, 377, 379
Local government:
and comparative public administration studies, 446
in New Zealand, 326
Local government units, 57f–58f
Local Management of Schools (LMW), 379
Locke, John, 119
Loi Jourdan, 222
LOLF (Loi organique relative aux lois de finances), 371
Longitudinal comparisons, 445
Long-term cultures, 145
Low-context cultures, 139
Low Intensity Conflict (LIC), 230
LPRP (Lao People's Revolutionary Party), 330
Lu, M., 362
LUPLA (Land Use Planning and Land Allocation program), 331–332
Luxembourg, 56
Lynn, Lawrence, 164
M
Maastricht Treaty, 268
McGregor, Dougals, 213
McNeil, John, 24
McNeil, William, 24
Macridis, R. C., 431
Macrocausal analysis, 464
Macrocitizenship, 92
Macrostates (territorial or national states), 21, 33
Maharashtra, India, 321
Majone, Ginadomenico, 414
Majoritarian systems, 101, 104, 108, 113
Making Work Pay (MWP), 297
Manchester Prison (UK), 249, 250
Mandarin-bureaucrat, 137
Mandela, Nelson, 245
MAPPA (Multi-Agency Public Protection Arrangements), 253
Mapping, 44
Marble-cake federalism, 102
Market coordination structures, 25
Market-type mechanisms (MTMs), 168
Marks, M., 248
Marshall, Thomas, 93
Marx, Karl, 445
Maryland Quality Indicator Project (QIP), 353
Masculine cultures, 144
Massey, D. S., 343
Material objects, 455
Mathews, J., 368
Mauritania, 100
Mauritius, 176
MDC (Movement of Democratic Change), 323
MDSD (most different systems design), 459–461
Meaning ratio, of concepts, 468
Medellín, Colombia, 238, 241–242
Medellín cartel, 241
Medibank (Australia), 361
Medicare (Australia), 361–362, 364
MediNet, 353
Medishield, 352
Mediterranean Dialogue, 335
Mediterranean phase, of first imperial age, 67
Meidner, Rudolf, 394
Memorandum of Economic and Financial Policies (Greece), 285
MENA (Middle East and North Africa), 334
Mencken, H. L., 193
Merelman, Richard, 44
Merkel, Angela, 304
Mesoamerica, 26
Metacitizenship, 92
Metcalf, H. C., 211
Method of difference, 458, 460
Method of elimination, 458
Methodological fragmentation in study of public administration, 440–442
Methodological motives, 451–452, 454
Methodology, 456
Mexico:
and Canadian trade policy, 340
dominant-party semicompetitive systems, 116
industry/trade policies, 341–344, 347, 348
single-party dominance in, 101
MFA (Multi-Fiber Arrangement), 334–335
MFN (most-favored nation), 334
Michigan, 368
Microcitizenship, 92
Microstates (city-states), 21
Midcitizenship, 92
Middle Ages, 87
Middle East:
corporate/collective orientation of, 27
decolonization of, 67
tribal societies in, 28
Middle East and North Africa (MENA), 334
Middle-range theories, 12–13, 446–447, 452, 454, 471
Midwest floods (1993), 233
Military Programming laws (France), 224
Military spending, 229
Mill, John Stuart, 23, 109, 444, 458
Miller, Portia Simpson, 114
Milwaukee Parental Choice Program (MPCP), 366–368
Milwaukee Public Schools (MPS), 365
Minimum pension guarantee (MPG), 384, 385
Ministry of Defense (Colombia), 238
Ministry of Education (China), 373–375
Ministry of Education (France), 370
Ministry of Government (Colombia), 237
Ministry of Health (MOH, Singapore), 352, 353
Ministry of Justice (MoJ, Great Britain), 253
Ministry of Labor and Welfare (Argentina), 357
Ministry of National Education (France), 371
Missi dominici, 52
Mitigation Directorate, 233
Mitterand, François, 224
Mizrachim, 226
MLG (multilevel government), 126–128
“Modernizing Government” (United Kingdom), 166
MOH (Ministry of Health, Singapore), 352, 353
Monochromic time (M-time) cultures, 139
Monopolies Act (Germany), 315
Montevideo Conference of Rights and Duties of States (1933), 75
Moore, Barrington, 12
Moore, Margaret, 43
Morale, 216
Morocco:
blue collar workers in, 197
civil uprising in, 100
trade policy in, 333–335, 347, 348
Mosher, F. C., 212
Most different systems design (MDSD), 459–461
Most-favored nation (MFN), 334
Most similar systems design (MSSD), 459–461
Movement of Democratic Change (MDC), 323
Mozambique, 99
MPCP (Milwaukee Parental Choice Program), 366–368
MPG (minimum pension guarantee), 384, 385
MPPs (Mutual Pension Plans), 388
MPS (Milwaukee Public Schools), 365
MSSD (most similar systems design), 459–461
MTMs (market-type mechanisms), 168
Multiactor government and governance, 126–128
Multi-Agency Public Protection Arrangements (MAPPA), 253
Multicultural citizenship, 94
Multi-Fiber Arrangement (MFA), 334–335
Multilevel government (MLG), 126–128
Multiparty systems, 101–102, 108
Municipal amalgamations, 53, 54t, 55
Municipalities, 73
Muslims, 379
Mutual Pension Plans (MPPs), 388
MWP (Making Work Pay), 297
N
Nachmias, David, 154
NAFTA, see North American Free Trade Agreement
Napoleonic tradition, 167
NAPPA (National Assessment Project of Public Administration), 172
Nation(s):
concept of, 81
future of, 95
origin of term, 74
strong, weak, and failing, 76–77
National Antinarcotic Bureau (Colombia), 239
National Assessment Committee (Comité National d'Evaluation), 370–371
National Assessment Council (Conseil National d'Evaluation), 370
National Assessment Project of Public Administration (NAPPA), 172
police and judiciary compared with, 268–274
National defined contribution (NDC), 391, 392
National Environment Council (Brazil), 329–330
National Environment Fund (Brazil), 329
National Guard, U.S., 234, 235
National Health Act of 1953 (Australia), 361
National Healthcare Group, 352
National health insurance, 361–362
National Health Priority Areas (Australia), 363–364
National identity, 474
National Institute for Colonization and Agrarian Reform (INCRA), 328, 329
National Labor Market Board (Sweden), 394, 397
National Offender Management Service (NOMS), 252, 273
National Pension Insurance (NPI, Japan), 387, 388
National People's Congress (NPC), 257
National Plan for Land Reform (PNRA), 328
National Police Corps (Colombia), 237–239, 241–243
National Policy on Medicines (Argentina), 359
National Preparedness Directorate (NPD), 232
National Preparedness System, 235
National Probation Directorate (NPD), 251–252
National Probation Service for England and Wales, 251
National Quality Control Circle Convention, 353
National Security Council (NSC), 232
National Service Law (Israel, 1949), 226
National states:
as macrostates, 21
tribal leadership disputes in, 28
universal phenomenon of, 71
National Strategy against Violence (Estrategia Nacional contra la Violencia), 240
National System for Citizen Participation in Police Matters (Colombia), 240
defined, 83
state making and, 73
Nation-states. See also Territorial states
concept of, 81
as nostalgic concept, 95
proliferation of, 83
Native-American tribes, 28
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 223
Natural science, 450
Naturism, 131
Nazism, 265
ND (nondefined) benefits, 384
NDC (national defined contribution), 391, 392
Near East, 117
Neighborhood watch programs, 241–242
NEM (New Economic Mechanism), 330
Neo-Babylonian city-states, 37
Neoliberalism:
in Estonia, 306
in Israel, 229
and Washington Consensus, 276, 348
Neolithic revolution, 25
Neo-traditional systems, 117
Nepal, 36
Nested jurisdictions, 55, 55t, 56, 58t, 59t
Netherlands:
assimilation in, 94
as decentralized unitary state, 103
citizen functionaries in, 195
Civil Service Act in, 204
corporatism in, 406
family classification of, 433
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
local government studies, 446
multiparty system in, 102
new public management in, 167
parliamentary system in, 114
public sector employees in, 200, 204
public servants in, 194
schools, 88
social division in, 113
state-church relations in, 88
state structure of, 105
subnational jurisdiction in, 56
Netherlands Competition Authority (NMa), 354
Nettl, Joyhn, 76
New Economic Mechanism (NEM, Laos), 330
New Labor Party (UK), 250, 251, 378, 379, 402
New Orleans, Louisiana, 234–235
New public management (NPM), 161–186, 213
in Colombia, 272
and “dinosaur syndrome,” 182–184
and Dutch health care system, 355
pervasiveness of, 274
and private vs. public sectors, 163–164
in South Africa, 272
New Solidarity Pillar (NSP), 385
New Zealand:
corruption index of, 189
judicial review in, 119
liberal democratic systems in, 99
as majoritarian, 104
nation building in, 90
new public management in, 170–171
political parties in, 101
public sector employees in, 205, 213
resource management in, 324–327, 346–347
NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), 329, 345
Nicaragua, 101
985 project, 375
Nixon, Richard, 214
NMa (Dutch Competition Authority), 354
Nomological framework, 454
NOMS (National Offender Management Service), 252, 273
Nondefined (ND) benefits, 384
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 329, 345
Non-Western world:
political reforms in, 108
population diversity in, 81–82
No-party political systems, 100, 101
Nordic countries, 200
Norman, Oklahoma, 195
North Africa, 117
North America:
liberal democratic systems in, 99
personnel function in, 206–217
tribal societies in, 28
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA):
Northcote-Trevelyan report, 445
Northern China city-states, 36
Northern Europe, 88
North Korea:
collegial bureaucratic elite system in, 117
as Double Hierarchy Model, 116
egalitarian-authoritarian systems in, 99
Norway:
civil service in, 117
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
public sector employees in, 200
religious tax in, 88
state religion in, 87
Novak, W. J., 79
NPC (National People's Congress), 257
NPD (National Preparedness Directorate), 232
NPD (National Probation Directorate), 251–252
NPI (National Pension Insurance), 387, 388
NPM, see New public management
NSC (National Security Council), 232
NSP (New Solidarity Pillar), 385
Nuclear weapons, 222, 291, 305
O
Oakeshott, Michael, 24
Obligatory Medical Program (PMO, Argentina), 359, 360
Obras sociales, 357
Obras sociales nacionales (OSNs), 358–360
Obras sociales provinciales (OSPs), 358
Oceania, 27
OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), 185, 437
OFEs (private open-ended pension funds), 392, 393
Offender Management Act of 2007 (OMA 2007), 253
Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED), 379
OFSTED (Office for Standards in Education), 379
Oil:
and Iranian economy, 287, 290, 291, 304–305
and Russian energy policy, 313–315
Oil crisis (1970s):
and Danish tax system, 293
and Dutch health care system, 355
and Iranian economy, 288
and welfare states, 401
Oil crisis (1980s), 281
OMA 2007 (Offender Management Act of 2007), 253
Oman, 100
100/250 MW wind program, 316
1,000 solar roof program, 316
Operation Active Endeavor, 335
Operational level of analysis, 5, 7
Operations Bureau of National Police Corps (Colombia), 239
Organizational culture, 146–152
Organizational structure, 35–36, 38
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 185, 437
Organized labor, 101, 281, 397
Ortho-traditional systems, 117
OSNs (Obras sociales nacionales), 358–360
OSPs (Obras sociales provinciales), 358
Ostrom, Vincent, 23
Ottoman Empire, 409
Overman, E. S., 162
P
PACE (Professional and Administrative Career Examination), 215
Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E), 317, 319
Pagi, 52
Pakistan, 117
Palestinians, 230
Palestinian city-states, 36
PAMI (El Programa de Atención Médica Integral), 357–358
PAP (Annual performance plan), 371
Papandreou, George, 284
Paradigm formal objects, 455
Parallel bureaucracy, 116
Parallel demonstration of theory, 464
Parishes, 52
Parliamentary political systems, 113–114, 115t
Parochial schools, 366
Party-political political systems, 115–118
Passive personality principle of law, 47
Pastrana, Andrés, 242
Path-dependency, 463
Pauly, M. V., 354
Pay-as-you-go (PAYG):
Payroll taxes, 382
PDI (power distance index), 140
Peace of Westphalia, 49, 72, 75
Peluso, Nancy, 45
Pendulum systems, 118
in Greece, 286
Pension Re-evaluation Act (Poland), 391
Pension Solidarity Complement (APS), 385
Pentagon attacks (2001), see September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks
Performance budgeting, 165
Performance Indicators (PIs), 163
Performance measurement, 133
Persian Empire, 409
Persian Gulf crisis (1990), 289. See also Gulf War (1990)
Personal income tax (PIT), 299, 300
Personalist bureaucratic elite system, 117
Personality principle of law, 46
Personal Pension System (Chile), 383
development of, in developed countries, 206, 207t–208t, 209–217
at organizational level, 211–213
and political-administrative relations, 202–206
public servants, 193–198, 198t–199t, 200, 201t–202t
and responsive government, 188–189, 190t, 191
and societal environment, 215–217
PES (Public Employment Service), 395, 396
Peso crisis (1994–1995), 342
Peters, Guy, 138
PFI (Private Finance Initiative) prisons, 250
PFTAs (preferential free trade agreements), 334, 335
PG&E (Pacific Gas and Electric Company), 317, 319
Pharmaceutical Benefit Act of 1950 (Australia), 361
Philippines:
judicial review in, 119
polyarchal competitive systems in, 116
Physical communities, 65
PIGS, 303
Pilichoswki, Elsa, 200
Pinochet, Augusto, 382
PIs (Performance Indicators), 163
PIT (personal income tax), 299, 300
Plan Colombia, 242
“Plan for Revitalizing Education in the Twenty-First Century” (China), 375
Planning and zoning, 322
energy management and industry/trade compared with, 344–348
in New Zealand, 324–327, 346–347
PMO (Obligatory Medical Program), 359, 360
PMOE (Emergency Obligatory Medical Program), 359, 360
PNRA (National Plan for Land Reform), 328
Poland:
authority upon cities in, 82
social security in, 390–394, 405
Police, 236
Policy bureaucrats, 198
Policy evaluation, 139
Policy Research Committee (Canada), 170
“The Policy Research Initiative” (Canada), 170
Political-administrative relations, 202–206
Political-administrative systems, 97–120. See also Bureaucracy
and multilevel/multiactor government and governance, 126–128
structure of government departments, 120–126
types of political systems, 98–120. See also Political systems
Political appointees, 194–195, 205
Political authority, 150, 150t, 151
Political centralization, 83–84
Political change, 29
Political development/evolution:
linear representation of, 28, 32
Political officeholders, 152, 152t, 153, 194
Political regime change, 30
Political rights, 93
Political systems:
authoritarian-inegalitarian, 99
egalitarian-authoritarian, 99
liberal democratic, 99
no-party, 100
party-political vs. bureaucratic-prominent, 115–118
presidential vs. parliamentary, 113–114, 115t
regime change, 30
traditional inegalitarian, 98–99
unitary vs. federal, 102–105, 103t, 104t, 106t–107t, 108
Politics in England (Rose), 406
Politicization of civil service, 204–205
Politicos (civil servant), 154
Pollitt, Christopher, 104–105, 167–168
Polyarchal competitive systems, 116
Polychromic time (P-time) cultures, 139
POP (Public Order Police), 247
Population control, 291
Population growth, 135
Populist political systems, 99
Portugal:
collegial bureaucratic elite system in, 117
colonization by, 67
new public management in, 167
state-church relations in, 88
Positive states, 78
Postbehavioral approach, 457t
Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 (Post-Katrina Act), 235
Postmodern delights, 151
Postnational citizenship, 94
Poverty:
and agricultural reform in Romania, 277, 279
and Laotian land policy, 330, 332
Power:
despotic, 79
infrastructural, 79
in parliamentary systems, 114
strategies in pursuit of, 27–28
Power distance index (PDI), 140
PPA function, see Public personnel administration function
PPA (public personnel administration) function, 206–217
Preexisting conditions, 356
Preferential free trade agreements (PFTAs), 334, 335
Presidential political systems, 113–114, 115t
Prestate, 78
Price, Don, 78
Primary health care centers (CAPS, Argentina), 360
Prime Minister's Office (Israel), 227
Principle of nonintervention, 49–50
Prison Board (Great Britain), 248–249
Prison Officers' Association (UK), 250
Prison Service of England and Wales, 248, 252
Pristine states, 26
Private Finance Initiative (PFI) prisons, 250
Private health insurance, 362
Private open-ended pension funds (OFEs), 392, 393
Private property, 43
Private schools, 365
Private sector:
bureaucracies in, 137
and Eastern European economies, 298
and Iranian economy, 290
after fall of Soviet Union, 335–336
in British prison system, 249–250, 272–273
of Chile pensions, 382–383, 404–405
and Czech industrial/trade policies, 336–337
of Israeli military, 231
and Laotian land policy, 330
of prison systems, 237
in Russia after breakup of Soviet Union, 312–313
Probation Rules of 1907 (UK), 251
Probation Service (UK), 251, 252
Problem of Galton, 471
Productivity:
and Canadian trade policy, 339
education and, 401
and Spanish economic policy, 282–283
Professional and Administrative Career Examination (PACE), 215
Professional military:
standing army as, 222
Professional police force:
in Colombia, 238
and internal security, 236
Professional technocracy, 78
El Programa de Atención Médica Integral (PAMI), 357–358
Prostate, 78
Protectionism:
in Iran, 289
Protestantism, 53
Provinces, 52
PSUs (Public Sector Units), 320
Public administration:
development of comparative, 443–448, 444t
development of study of, 39
geographic fragmentation in study of, 432–435
importance of comparison in study of, 430–432
management and, 158–161. See also New public management (NPM)
methodological/epistemological fragmentation in study of, 440–442
as science of association, 23
substantive fragmentation in study of, 435–440
Public Employment Service (PES, Sweden), 395, 396
Public individuals, 152–155, 152t–153t
Public-interest model, 145–146
Public management (as field of study), 161. See also New public management (NPM)
Public Order Police (POP), 247
Public personnel administration (PPA) function, 206–217
in developed countries, 206, 207t–208t, 209–217
at organizational level, 211–213
and societal environment, 215–217
Public Prosecutor's Office (Colombia), 240
Public schools, 364
Public sector:
civil servants, 64
Public sector pensions, 386
Public Sector Units (PSUs, India), 320
Public servant, 194
Public service, see Personnel system(s)
Public Service Commission (South Africa), 248
Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), 317
Punishment, Custody, and the Community (UK Green Paper), 251
PURPA (Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act), 317
Q
QFs (qualifying facilities), 317
QIP (Maryland Quality Indicator Project), 353
Qualifying facilities (QFs), 317
Quality Indicator Project (QIP), 353
Quantitative research, 471
R
Raadschelders, J. C. N., 4, 81, 83, 123, 194, 195
Rafsanjani, Akbar Hashemi, 289
Ramos, Guerrero, 23
RDP (Reconstruction and Development Program), 246
Recession (1990s, Japan), 388
Recession (1990s, Sweden), 396, 397
Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP), 246
REF (Risk Equalization Fund), 356
Refugee Review Tribunal (Australia), 169
Regional Offender Managers (ROMs), 252–253
Rehn, Gösta, 394
Rehn, Olli, 286
Reid, John, 253
Religion:
freedom of, 366
state, 87
Remediar program, 359, 360, 400
Renewable energy sources (RES-E), 316, 317, 345
Renewable Energy Sources Act of 2000 (Germany), 317
Renfrew, Colin, 27
RES-E, see Renewable energy sources
Research Division of AMAN, 229
Research technical problems, 472–473
Resettlement, 323
Resident aliens, 94
Resource jobs, 397
Resource Management Act (RMA, New Zealand), 325–327, 346
Resource mobilization, 306
“Responsibility to Protect,” 262
Responsive government, 188–189, 191
Reynolds, John, 365
Reza Shah Pahlavi, shah of Iran, 287
Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, 53
Riggs, F. W., 448
Right of asylum, 264, 265, 267
Riot Unit (South Africa), 247
Risk Equalization Fund (REF, Netherlands), 356
RMA (Resource Managements Act), 325–327, 346
Robinson, James, 71
Rohr, John, 215
Rojas Pinilla, Gustavo, 238
Rolling blackouts, 319
ROMs (Regional Offender Managers), 252–253
Roman Empire, 37, 52, 89, 349, 409
Roman Republic, 100
Rome, Treaty of (1957), 354
Roosevelt, Theodore, 231
Rose, Richard, 406
Rosenbloom, David, 154
Rosneft, 313
Rouse, C. E., 367
Rule-making, 418
Rule-taking, 418
Rumbold, Angela, 249
Rural communities, 56
Russia:
authority upon cities in, 82
church-controlled schools in, 88
egalitarian-authoritarian systems in, 99
energy management in, 312–315, 345
Rutgers, M. R., 468
S
Saavedra, P., 302
Sabras, 228
Sack, Robert, 43
Safari model, of comparative research, 472
Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 341–342
Samaratunge, Ramanie, 173, 174
Samper, Ernesto, 241
San Diego Gas and Electric Company (SDGandE), 317–319
San Francisco earthquake (1906), 231
SAP (South African Police), 245
Sapard program (Romania), 278
SAPS (South African Police Service), 246–248
SARS crisis (2003), 258
Savage, E., 362
Scandinavia, 30, 193. See also specific countries
Scandinavian family of nations, 432, 433
Scheffler S., 94
Schengen Agreement, 267
Schmidt, Klaus, 30n.10
School choice, 364–365, 402. See also Voucher plans
School Curriculum and Assessment Authority, 380
Schröder, Gerhard, 267
Schumpeter, Joseph, 12
Schwanen, D., 339
Scientific method, 450
Scott, James C., 33, 34, 44, 47
Scottish Prison Service, 249
SDGandE (San Diego Gas and Electric Company), 317–319
Search Bloc (Bloque de Búsqueda), 239–240
SEBs (State Electricity Boards), 320, 321
Secession, 49
Seckendorf, Veit Ludwig von, 39
Secondary schools, 377
Second imperial age, 67
Second Lebanon War (2006), 230
Second-order formal objects, 455
Second Party Congress (Laos), 330
Secretariat for Policy Research (Canada), 170
Seguridad Local (Local Security Fronts), 241, 244
Self-government, 44, 47, 53, 55
Senegal, 176
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks:
UN Security Council and, 263
SERCs (State Electricity Regulatory Commissions), 320
Service bureaucrats (civil servant), 154
Service Level Agreements (SLAs), 250
Settlement, 49
“Seven Sisters” (oil companies), 288
Shanghai, China, 257
SHI (Social Health Insurance), 357, 358
SIA (Social Insurance Agency), 389
Singapore:
new public management in, 173, 174
single-party dominance in, 101
Singapore Health Services, 352
Single-party systems, 101
Six Day War (1967), 227
Skocpol, Th., 464
Skoda, 336
SLAs (Service Level Agreements), 250
Small power distances, 140
Social construction, 453
Social contract, 72
Social Democratic Party (Denmark), 294
Social Democratic Party (Sweden), 397
Social-economic services, 311–312. See also Energy management; Industry and trade; Planning and zoning
Social Health Insurance (SHI, Argentina), 357, 358
Social Insurance Agency (SIA, Japan), 389
Social Insurance Fund (ZUS, Poland), 392–393, 405
Social rights, 93
Social sciences:
natural science vs., 450
health care and education compared with, 398–406
Social Security Tribunal (Australia), 169
Social services, see Health care; Social security
Social spending, 285
Societal culture, 138–140, 141t–142t, 143–146
Society:
intertwining of government and, 18
SOEs (State-owned enterprises), 335–336
Solar energy, 316
Solidarity Redistribution Fund (FSR, Argentina), 359
Somalia, 189
Somers, M., 464
Sonatine bureaucratique (Satie), 129
South Africa:
community policing in, 236, 270–271
Traditional Leadership and Framework Act of, 28
South African Police (SAP), 245
South African Police Service Act, 246
South America, 26, 99. See also specific countries
Southeast Asia:
experimental phase in, 34
local communities in, 44
tribal societies in, 28
Southern California Edison Company (Edison), 317, 319
South Korea:
liberal democratic systems in, 99
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
study of public administration in, 438
Sovereign debt:
in Europe, 303
Spanish, 283
Soviet Union:
and Chinese educational system, 372, 373
as model for Eastern European tax systems, 298
Soviet Union, breakdown of:
and Russian energy policy, 312–315
and tax policies in newly independent countries, 298–299
Soviet Union, former, 21
as Double Hierarchy Model, 116
egalitarian-authoritarian systems in, 99
new public management in, 178
Spain:
colonization by, 67
hospitals in, 88
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
new public management in, 167
public sector employees in, 204
state-church relations in, 88
SPC (Supreme People's Court), 256
SPD/Green Party coalition (Germany), 267
Special Armed Unit (Cuerpo Especial Armado; Colombia), 239
Special-purpose governments, 61–62
Specific-purpose governments, 22
Stage theories, 458
Stamp-flag-coin approach, 445, 446
Standard & Poor's (S&P), 285, 286
Standing armies, 222
State(s), 74–82. See also National states; Territorial states
bold-, 78
coexistence/cooperation of tribes and, 28
defining concept of, 72
evolution of concept of, 74–75
failed/failing, 77
juridical definition of, 75–76, 80
membership in, 74
phases in development of, 33–34
sedentary lifestyle and emergence of, 30
separation of organized religion and the, 85–89
sociopsychological definition of, 76, 80
in stage model, 26
State Education Commission (China), 373
State Electricity Boards (SEBs), 320, 321
State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs), 320
Statehouses, 149
as differentiating process, 73
exogenous vs. endogenous models of, 83–85, 83t
models and explanations of, 82–85
nation building and, 73
patterns of, 83t
The State of the Nation (Bok), 453
State-owned enterprises (SOEs), 335–336
State religion, 87
Statesmen (civil servant), 154
State sovereignty, 260
Stevin, Simon, 38
Stigler, George, 23
Stone, D., 415
Strait of Hormuz, 288
Strangeways Riot (Manchester Prison, UK), 249
Street-level bureaucrats, 198
Structural convergence, 473–474
Structural-functionalism theory, 454–455, 471
Subnational jurisdictions:
current situation, 55, 55t, 56, 57f–58f, 58t–60t, 59–62
historical trends, 51–53, 54f, 55
Sub-Saharan Africa, 110
Subsidies, 344
Substantive fragmentation in study of public administration, 435–440
Sudan, 100
Supreme People's Court (SPC), 256
Sustainable development, 324–327, 347
Sweden:
authority upon cities in, 82
Civil Service Act in, 204
judicial review in, 119
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
political reform capacity of, 104
social security in, 394–398, 405–406
state religion in, 87
Swedish Employers' Confederation (Svenska Arbetsgivareföreningen, SAF), 398
Switzerland:
judicial review in, 119
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
religious tax in, 88
special-purpose governments in, 62
Sztompka, Pjotr, 13
T
Taagepera, Rein, 50
Tanzania, 116
Tarde, Gabriel, 417
Tariffs:
in Mexico, 341
Task Force on the Management of Horizontal Policy (Canada), 170
Tatra, 336
Taxation, 88
Taxonomies, 447
Tax systems, 292
economic/financial systems compared with, 302–309
and GDP, 307
in Greece, 285
and labor vs. capital, 307–308
and territorialization, 45
Tax-to-GDP ratio, 295
Taylor, Frederick, 211
Tead, O., 211
Technical and professional personnel, 196
Technological revolution, 6–7, 423–424
Technology:
and“dinosaur syndrome,” 183
and Mexican industry/trade policies, 343
Territoriality:
and bureaucratic organizations, 41–42
defined in terms of authority, 87–88
definitions of, 43
Territoriality principle of law, 46–47
Territorialization, 45–48, 109
Territorial states, 82
defined, 81
as dominant polity, 94
emergence of, as upper-local polities, 29–32
and global challenges, 92
as macrostates, 21
number of, 82
tribal leadership disputes in, 28
universal phenomenon of, 71
Territorial units, 45
Territory, 72
Thailand:
administrative reforms in, 68
collegial bureaucratic elite regime in, 118
territorialization of, 48
Thatcher, Margaret, 166, 178, 249, 377
“Thatcherism,” 166
Theoretical motives, 451–452, 454
Theory Y, 214
Thompson, Tommy, 366
Thousand Days War (1899–1902), 237
3Ms system (Singapore), 351–354, 399
Thuesen, Ingolf, 32n.11
Tiananmen Square protests, 374
Tiglath-Pileser III, 52
Top-down perspective, 19
Totalitarian regimes, 35
Total quality management (TQM), 353
Town and Country Planning Act (New Zealand), 325
TQM (Total quality management), 353
Trade, see Industry and trade
Trade and Industrial Policy Loan, 333
Trade deficits, 342
Trade liberalization:
and Mexican trade policy, 341, 343
and Moroccan trade policy, 333–335
Trade unions, see Unions
Traditional approach, 457t
Traditional elite systems, 117
Traditional inegalitarian political systems, 98–99
Traditional Leadership and Framework Act of South Africa, 28
Traditional temples, 151
Tragedy of the commons, 25
Transjordan tribal populations, 28
Transparency International, 188, 189
Trefler, D., 339
Trocello, 36
Tull, Denis, 80
Turkisch, Edouard, 200
211 project, 375
Two-party political systems, 101
U
U2000 plan (France), 371
UCLG (United Cities and Local Governments), 197
UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights), 264
Uganda, 176
UI (Unemployment insurance), 394–397
UK, see United Kingdom
Unauthorized migrants, 344
Uncertainty avoidance, 140, 143
Undocumented migrants, 344
UNDP (United Nations Development Program), 279, 324
Unemployment:
in Belgium, 296
in the Netherlands, 355
Unemployment insurance (UI), 394–397
Uniformed medical personnel, 197
Unifying theories, 454
Unions:
political parties and, 101
in Spain, 281
in Sweden, 397
Unión Patriótica, 239
Unitary states, 102–105, 103t, 104t, 106t–107t, 108
United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), 197
United Kingdom (UK):
constituting documents of, 111
and Indian electrical infrastructure, 320
as majoritarian, 104
new public management in, 166–167
political parties in, 101
political system of, 114
prime minister's control in, 108
prison privatization, 237, 249–250, 272–273
public sector employees in, 200, 205
state-church relations in, 88
subnational jurisdiction in, 56
United Nations (UN), 254
United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 279, 324
UN Security Council, 259–264, 274, 291
United States. See also individual states
amateur government in, 85
branches of government in, 119
and Canadian trade policy, 339, 340
Civil Service Act in, 204
collectivism in, 143
cooperative federalism in, 102
cultural dimensions in, 145
Declaration of Independence, 90
emergence of democracy in, 118, 119
emergency management in, 231–236
excision of local areas from municipalities, 73
federalism in, 465
general- and specific-purpose governments in, 22
health care in, 350
inclusive political and economic institutions in, 71
income inequality in, 112
individualism in, 143
as large-scale democratic experiment, 110
life satisfaction in, 189, 191
local governments in, 62
local government studies, 446
low power distance in, 140
as majoritarian- consensualist system, 104
as masculine culture, 144
and Mexican trade policy, 341, 344, 348
and Moroccan trade policy, 335
nation building in, 90
new public management in, 165–166
Northwest Ordinance, 38
personnel function in, 206–217
political appointees in, 194–195
political officeholders in, 194
political parties in, 101
political systems in, 108
presidency of, 114
prison privatization, 237
public administration studies, 437, 439
public schools in, 349
public sector employees in, 200, 202, 204, 205
public service reform in, 209, 211–212
rule-making by, 418
separation of church and state in, 86
social mobility in, 113
special-purpose governments in, 61–62
status of civil servants in, 193
statute law in, 120
subnational jurisdiction in, 61
as Tudor polity, 78
Uniting for Consensus (UfC), 262
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 264
Universities:
“Unwritten constitution,” 78
Upper-local governance/government. See also individual types of governments
local governance/government and, 18, 21, 22, 36–37
Upper-local polities. See also National states; Territorial states
emergence of territorial states as, 29–32
local communities enveloped by/embedded in, 18
Up-time perspective, 19
Urban communities, 56
Uruguay Round, 338
Utilitarian comparisons, 443–444
Utility consensus, 317
V
Vandergeest, Peter, 45
Variables, 471
VAT (value-added tax):
in Estonia, 300
Vatican City, 87
Venice, 36
Ventriss, Curt, 23
Veterans' Review Board (Australia), 169
Vietnam:
as Double Hierarchy Model, 116
egalitarian-authoritarian systems in, 99
Vigoda, E., 173
Vigoda-Gadot, E., 4, 76, 91, 162, 184n1
Volkswagen, 338
Voucher plans (education), 364, 365, 368, 380
W
Wage inequality, 343
Wales, 376
War of Attrition (Israel–Egypt, 1967-70), 228
War of Independence (Israel, 1947-1949), 225
“War on terror,” 335
War Veterans' Association (Zimbabwe), 323
Washington Consensus, 276, 341, 344–345, 348
Water management, 325
WB, see World Bank
Weber, Eugen, 91
Weber, Max, 31, 130–134, 156, 159, 191–193, 206, 444
Wedel, J. R. ., 178
Weickart, Lynne, 166
Welfare services and policies, 349–350. See also Education; Health care; Social security
Welfare state, 401
cross-policy comparison in, 463
in Europe vs. United States, 159
expenditures of, 189
origin of, 95
Wenke, Robert, 31
Wessex (kingdom), 48
Western Europe:
citizens' rights in, 95
civil service system in, 189
emergence of democracy in, 118, 119
experimental phase in, 34
fragmented political cultures in, 112
municipal amalgamations in, 54t
new public management in, 167–168
parliamentary system in, 114
personnel function in, 206–217
political systems in, 108
polyarchal competitive systems in, 116
statute law in, 120
traditional inegalitarian political systems in, 99
Western Sahara, 100
Western world:
homogeneity in, 111
political systems of, 112
population diversity in, 81
separation of church and state in, 87
West Kalimantan, Indonesia, 44
Westminster systems, 114
“Westphalia paradigm,” 186
“White Paper” (United Kingdom), 166
Williams, Annette “Polly,” 365
Williamson, John, 276
Wilson, David, 24
Wilson, Edward, 24
Wimmer, Andreas, 83
Wintu (people), 47
Wissenschaft, 441
Witt, James Lee, 233
Witte, John, 367
Wittfogel, Karl, 30
Wolds Remand Prison (UK), 249–250
Wolfe, Humbert, 137
Women:
in Israeli military, 226
and social security in Chile, 383, 385
and social security in Poland, 392
and tax policy in Belgium, 296
Wong, Yuwa, 35
Woolf Report, 249
Work experience programs, 396
World Bank (WB), 176
and Indian energy management, 320
and Moroccan trade policy, 333
and social security in Chile, 383
and tax reform, 306
World Trade Center attacks (2001), see September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks
World Trade Organization (WTO):
Canada and, 338
Iran and, 290
Mexico and, 341
World War II:
and Dutch health care system, 354–355
and public administration studies, 446
and social security in Japan, 386–387
and UK educational system, 377
and UN Charter, 260
Wotton, Sir Henry, 151
Wright, Henry, 31
WTO, see World Trade Organization
Y
Yemen, 100
Yom Kippur War, 228
Yugoslavia, former, 21
Z
ZANU-PF (Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front), 323, 324
Zealots (civil servant), 154
Zeno, 89
Zhu Yuntao, 258
Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), 323, 324
Zimbabwe Joint Resettlement Scheme, 324
Zomia (region), 44
Zoning, 326. see also Planning and zoning