Sometimes training is not needed or feasible and the worker must perform the procedure by following directions on a performance aid. A common example is the gas pumping instructions found at self-service stations or the installation directions on the copy machine toner cartridge. Performance aids can be displayed on computer screens, cards, or in manuals. A common example is step-by-step directions for either equipment assembly or computer tasks. For example Figure 11.3 shows a job aid for a computer procedure, and Figure 11.4 shows a step-by-step guide as part of a computer help system. Since performance aids must stand on their own, the clarity of the instructions is critical. Likewise, inserting appropriate warnings into performance aids is also important since the workers are usually on their own to resolve any glitches they encounter along the way.

When training is necessary, work aids such as the one shown in Figure 11.3 can be used as memory support for performance back on the job. These aids are especially important for procedures that are performed relatively infrequently. Since training programs cannot usually afford to provide explicit demonstrations and practice on every possible procedure that might be needed, effective design and display of performance aids is critical to effective work outcomes.

Whether displaying procedures with animated or still visuals, show the steps in job context from the performer's perspective. Using an over-the-shoulder video shot or three-dimensional perspective in a drawing gives the learner an accurate frame of reference.

For example, Figure 11.10 shows a graphic designed to show novices how to replace the car headlight light bulb. Note, in this draft, there is no indication whether you are viewing the left or right headlight assembly—so a novice could easily get confused and replace the high beam bulb instead. Note that the corrected drawing, Figure 11.11, includes the side of the car, so that the novice user can identify which bulb is being replaced. In Figure 11.12, the designer felt that only the drop-down menu needed to be shown to illustrate the next step in a procedure. However, showing only the drop-down menu can be disorienting since different drop-downs can appear depending on the object the cursor is on when the right mouse button is clicked. In Figure 11.13, the designer includes more context, with the clicked-on object shown as well as the drop-down menu. Research summarized by Van der Meij, Blijleven, and Jansen (2003) shows that full screen captures increase learning time and retention compared to screen components shownout of context.

Figure 11.10. An Equipment Procedure Shown out of Context.

Figure 11.11. Procedure in Figure 11.10 Shown in Context.

Figure 11.12. A Drop-Down Menu Shown out of Context.

Figure 11.13. Drop-Down Menu Shown in Context.

Van der Meij, Blijleven, and Jansen (2003) reviewed the visuals in a number of computer software and hardware manuals. They found that a large number of visuals (80 percent in software manuals and 48 percent in hardware manuals) used onlyflat pictures. Flat pictures are representational rather than transformational. The authors note that "In software manualsthe most striking finding for picture type used is the overwhelming presence of flat pictures. These picturesare all screen captures of which the majority are positioned within the action steps. The absence of any labeling or flow probably means a missed opportunity" (p. 171).

Instead of isolated flat pictures, visuals should be labeled and show flow such as in Figures 11.6 and 11.7. For equipment procedures, flows can be shown with three-dimensional line drawings supported by arrows as shown in Figure 11.6. For the computer procedure in Figure 11.7 the visual uses a horizontal left-to right alignment, visiblenumbers, and integrated action steps to show the sequence of actions and outcomes.

For a representational visual that is complex or a transformational visual that is an animation (with or without audio narration), use visual cues to direct attention. Jeung, Chandler, and Sweller (1997) report that narrating a demonstration is only helpful when a visual cue draws the eye to the visual elements being described. Visual search requirements aremuch higher when explanations are externally paced, such as a narration of a complex visual or animation. Note, for example, that the demonstration included in the CD and represented by a screen capture in Figure 11.5 uses a combination of animation and narration to demonstrate a procedure. Visual cuing (arrows and text bolding) draws the eye to the relevant part of the screen. Alternatively, in multimedia you can use a build technique to add text or visuals individually to a screen as they are described in the audio. Figure 11.7 is a paper version of the procedure shown in Figure 11.5. The lines and circles connect the text steps to the relevant portion of the screen and are colored in red to further direct attention.

As mentioned above, training often does not provide sufficient practice opportunities to build automatic performance. Therefore, learners need some form of memory support during practice exercises and when they return to the job. Memory support can take the form of brief text that summarizes the steps illustrated in a transformational visual or short text bullets that remain on the screen during a narrated sequence as shown in Figure 11.5. The bullets summarize the main action steps and can even be printed as a job aid. Reference aids can include both diagrams and text as reminders as shownin Figure 11.3.

When you explain a demonstration with audio, you effectively use the visual and auditory centers of working memory and thus maximize the limited capacity of working memory. As a result the learner can observe the actions and at the same time hear a coordinated description of the actions. As mentioned above, because narration typically runs at a pace outside the control of the learner, it's important to use visual cues to help focus attention quickly on the parts of the equipment or interface being described. Such animation sequences should be short and involve no more than four or five steps (7±2). One successful technique is to provide the major steps in text on the screen throughout the animation. As each one is explained, it is highlighted with bolding or a different color. This technique communicates the overall picture, highlights how the individual step fits into that picture, and elaborates on the specifics of each step. It's a good idea to include a replay button allowing the learner to review both the visuals and the words describing the visuals.

If a visual illustration is described by words presented in text, place each action phrase close to the relevant portion of the visual. This proximity allows learners to integrate the two sources of information more easily than if they have to read text in one location and then move their eyes to match it to the relevant part of the visual. Figures 11.14A and 11.14B show assembly instructions that are psychologically taxing because the graphic illustrations appear two pages away from the text directions. This separation requires one to flip back and forth in the manual and adds load to working memory. Contrast this with the layout of text and visual in the manual shown in Figure 11.15 in which the text and visuals are integrated.

Figure 11.14a. Assembly Text Instructions Appear on One Page.

Figure 11.14b. Assembly Graphics Appear Two Pages Later in the Manual.

Figure 11.15. A Manual That Integrates Visuals and Text.

Imagine connecting three resistors together by following these instructions:

Using the resistors supplied, make the following connections:

Figure 11.16. A Diagrammatic Presentation of Task Directions.

Now imagine performing the same task using the diagram shown in Figure 11.16. It won't come as any surprise that when the text and visual formats were compared in controlled research studies, the time to complete the task was significantly greater for those using the text formats. In four separate experiments, participants using the text version required from two to six times longer than those using the diagrams. The advantage of the diagram format, however, was most pronounced with relatively complex instructions like the ones shown above. When the task was simple such as connect one end of a 2-ohm resistor to one end of a 3-ohm resistor, there was minimal advantage to the diagrams. The level of difficulty of the task was rated by participants on a 1 (very easy) to 7 (very difficult) scale. On complex tasks, difficulty ratings were significantly higher for text directions than for diagram instructions. In contrast, for simple tasks, there was no difference in ratings between text and diagram instructions (Marcus, Cooper & Sweller, 1996). The authors conclude that "when cognitive load was low because element interactivity was low, the advantage of diagrams was lessened comparedto materials with a high cognitive load owing to high element interactivity" (p. 60). In other words, use diagrams to reduce cognitive load when the procedure involves complex spatial relationships.

If the equipment or interface used to perform the procedure is complex, eliminate extraneous visual detail by using line drawings or by graying out unneeded elements of the visual. Note, for example, that the representational visual shownin Figure 11.6 uses simple line drawings rather than photographs or shaded drawings. Be careful, however, not to eliminate any components involved in the procedure or to disorient the learner by showing portions of the interface out of job context as described under Guideline 2.

In general, feedback for computer simulations during initial practice is provided relatively frequently and in text placed close to where the learner has been asked to enter data. As the course progresses with additional practices, feedback may be diminished to include only normal error messages that the system would provide.

When first performing a procedure, learners should have access to the memory support they would have as on-the-job reference. If on-screen procedural support is available as part of the system as shown in Figure 11.4, access to this online help should be built into the simulation. Note that if you choose to re-create this online help, make sure to keep it updated to match the real application. If there is relatively little procedural help built into the software, then give learners access to a pop-up window that summarizes the steps in text as well as access to or replay of a demonstration of the steps. It is important that the learners have visual access to the memory support on the same screen where they are performing the actions as in Figure 11.4. Notice that the application is reduced and moved to the left to allow the learner to simultaneously see the application and the procedural directions.

Our discussion above pertains to learning computer procedures. However, during training of procedural skills that involve complex new motor skill learning, there is no substitute for actual hands-on practice in a laboratory situation and for memory support and job aids that meet the needs of the environment. As just one example, for busy technicians on the floor of an autoshop, laminated wall charts of key procedures posted next to the repair bay where those procedures are commonly done is a better solution than a paper manual kept on a shelf and easily disfigured by greasy hands.

Procedures are one of the main types of content included in training courses designed to build task-specific skills. However, in order to perform many procedures learners will need supporting knowledge including related facts and concepts. In the next chapter we will summarize effective ways to visualize conceptual content followed by a chapter on the best ways to visualize facts.