Terms (10.1.1.1)

An operating system (OS) has a number of functions. One of its main tasks is to act as an interface between the user and the hardware connected to the computer, as shown in Figure 10-1. The operating system also controls other functions:

• Software resources

• Memory allocation and all peripheral devices

• Common services to computer application software

Almost every computer, from a digital watch to a desktop computer, requires an operating system before it can be operated.

To understand the capabilities of an operating system, it is important to first understand some basic terms. The following terms are often used when describing operating systems:

• Multi-user: Two or more users have individual accounts that allow them to work with programs and peripheral devices at the same time.

• Multitasking: The computer is capable of operating multiple applications at the same time.

• Multiprocessing: The operating system can support two or more CPUs.

• Multithreading: A program can be broken into smaller parts that are loaded as needed by the operating system. Multithreading allows different parts of a program to be run at the same time.

The OS boots the computer and manages the file system. Operating systems can support more than one user, task, or CPU.

Basic Functions of an Operating System (10.1.1.2)

Regardless of the size and complexity of the computer and the operating system, all operating systems perform the same four basic functions:

• Control hardware access

• Manage files and folders

• Provide a user interface

• Manage applications

Hardware Access

The OS manages the interaction between applications and the hardware, as shown in Figure 10-2. To access and communicate with each hardware component, the OS uses a program called a device driver. When a hardware device is installed, the OS locates and installs the device driver for that component. Assigning system resources and installing drivers are performed with a Plug and Play (PnP) process. The OS then configures the device and updates the Registry, which is a database that contains all the information about the computer.

If the OS cannot locate a device driver, a technician must install the driver manually either by using the media that came with the device or by downloading it from the manufacturer’s website.

File and Folder Management

The OS creates a file structure on the hard disk drive to store data (see Figure 10-3). A file is a block of related data that is given a single name and treated as a single unit. Program and data files are grouped together in a directory. The files and directories are organized for easy retrieval and use. Directories can be kept inside other directories. These nested directories are referred to as subdirectories. In Windows, directories are called folders, and subdirectories are called subfolders.

User Interface

The OS enables the user to interact with the software and hardware. Operating systems include two types of user interfaces:

• Command line interface (CLI): The user types commands at a prompt.

• Graphical user interface (GUI): The user interacts with menus and icons, as shown in Figure 10-4.

Application Management

The OS locates an application and loads it into the RAM of the computer. Applications are software programs, such as word processors, databases, spreadsheets, and games. The OS allocates available system resources to running applications.

To ensure that a new application is compatible with an OS, programmers follow a set of guidelines known as an application programming interface (API). An API allows programs to access the resources managed by the operating system in a consistent and reliable manner. Here are some examples of APIs, as shown in Figure 10-5:

• Open Graphics Library (OpenGL): This is a cross-platform standard specification for multimedia graphics.

• DirectX: This is a collection of APIs related to multimedia tasks for Microsoft Windows.

• Windows API: The Windows API provides application developers with user interface controls, file management, and graphical elements, such as windows, scroll bars, and dialog boxes.

• Java APIs: This is a collection of APIs related to the development of Java programming.

Windows Operating Systems (10.1.1.3)

In the current software market, the most commonly used desktop operating systems fall into three groups: Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS, and Linux. This chapter focuses on Microsoft operating systems. Table 10-1 summarizes the evolution of Windows 7 through Windows 10.

Compatible System Software and Hardware Requirements (10.1.2.1)

Understanding how a computer will be used is important when recommending an OS to a customer. The OS must be compatible with the existing hardware and the required applications.

To make an OS recommendation, a technician must review budget constraints, learn how the computer will be used, determine which types of applications will be installed, and decide whether a new computer may be purchased. These are some guidelines to help determine the best OS for a customer:

• Does the customer use off-the-shelf applications for this computer? An off-the-shelf application specifies a list of compatible operating systems on the application package, as shown in Figure 10-6.

• Does the customer use customized applications that were programmed specifically for the customer? If the customer is using a customized application, the programmer of that application specifies which OS to use.

Minimum Hardware Requirements and Compatibility with OS (10.1.2.2)

Each operating system has minimum hardware requirements that must be met for the OS to be installed and function correctly.

Identify the equipment that your customer has in place. If hardware upgrades are necessary to meet the minimum requirements for an OS, conduct a cost analysis to determine the best course of action. In some cases, it might be less expensive for the customer to purchase a new computer than to upgrade the current system. In other cases, it might be cost-effective to upgrade one or more of the following components:

• RAM

• Hard disk drive

• CPU

• Video adapter card

• Motherboard

Microsoft lists the minimum system requirements for Windows versions on its website, as shown in Table 10-2.

32-bit vs. 64-bit Processor Architecture (10.1.2.3)

The processor architecture of the CPU affects the performance of the computer.

The terms 32-bit and 64-bit refer to the amount of data a computer’s CPU can manage. A 32-bit register can store 2³² different binary values. Therefore, a 32-bit processor can directly address 4,294,967,295 bytes. A 64-bit register can store 2⁶⁴ different binary values. Therefore, a 64-bit can directly address 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 bytes.

Table 10-3 shows the main differences between the 32-bit and 64-bit architectures.

What Do You Already Know? - Choosing a Windows Edition (10.1.2.4)

Checking OS Compatibility (10.1.3.1)

An OS must be upgraded periodically to remain compatible with the latest hardware and software. It is also necessary to upgrade an OS when a manufacturer stops supporting it. Upgrading an OS can increase performance. New hardware products often require that the latest OS version be installed to operate correctly. While upgrading an OS may be expensive, you can gain enhanced functionality through new features and support for newer hardware.

Windows OS Upgrades (10.1.3.2)

The process of upgrading the OS can be quicker than the process of performing a new installation. The upgrade process varies depending on the version of Windows being upgraded.

The version of an OS determines available upgrade options. For example, a 32-bit OS cannot be upgraded to a 64-bit OS. Also, Windows 7 and Windows 8 can be upgraded to Windows 10, but Windows Vista and Windows XP cannot.

To upgrade Windows 7 or Windows 8 to Windows 10, use the Windows 10 Update Assistant, available on the Download Windows 10 website (see Figure 10-7). The Windows 10 Update Assistant installs and runs directly on the computer being upgraded. The tool walks the user through all the steps in the Windows 10 setup process. It is designed to prepare your computer for upgrading by checking for compatibility issues and downloading all necessary files to start the installation.

Computers running Windows XP or Windows Vista do not have an upgrade path to Windows 10 and require a clean installation. Windows 10 installation media can be created using the Create Windows 10 installation media tool. This tool creates installation media (USB flash, DVD, or ISO file), which can be used to perform a clean installation.

Data Migration (10.1.3.3)

When a new installation is required, user data must be migrated from the old OS to the new one. There are several tools available to transfer data and settings. The data migration tool you select depends on your level of experience and your requirements.

User State Migration Tool

The User State Migration Tool (USMT), shown in Figure 10-8, is a command line utility developed by Microsoft that allows users who are comfortable with scripting languages to transfer files and settings between Windows PCs. USMT is one of many core assessment and deployment tools included in the Windows Assessment and Deployment Kit, which can be downloaded from the Microsoft website. You can use USMT version 10.0 to streamline and simplify user state migration during large deployments of Windows operating systems. USMT captures user accounts, user files, operating system settings, and application settings and then migrates them to a new Windows installation. You can use USMT for both PC replacement and PC refresh migrations.

Note

USMT version 10.0 supports data migration from Windows 7 through Windows 10.

Windows Easy Transfer

If a user is switching from an old computer to a new one, use Windows Easy Transfer to migrate personal files and settings, as shown in Figure 10-9. You can perform the file transfer using a USB cable, a CD or DVD, a USB flash drive, an external drive, or a network connection.

Use Windows Easy Transfer to transfer information to a computer running Windows 8.1 from a computer with one of the following operating systems:

• Windows 8

• Windows 7

• Windows Vista

Windows Easy Transfer is not available in Windows 10 and has been replaced with PCmover Express.

PCmover Express

Microsoft has partnered with Laplink to provide PCmover Express, shown in Figure 10-10, which is a tool for transferring selected files, folders, profiles, and applications from an old Windows PC to a Windows 10 PC. Instead of repurchasing and manually installing programs on the new PC, a user can use PCmover to transfer selected applications to the new PC, and they will be installed and ready to use.

10.1.3.4 Check Your Understanding - OS Upgrades

Refer to the online course to complete this activity.

Storage Device Types (10.2.1.1)

As a technician, you might have to perform a clean installation of an OS. Perform a clean install in the following situations:

• When a computer is passed from one employee to another

• When the OS is corrupt

• When the primary hard drive is replaced in a computer

The installation and initial booting of the OS is called the operating system setup. Although it is possible to install an OS over a network from a server or from a local hard drive, the most common installation method for a home or small business is through external media such as DVDs or USB drives.

Before the operating system can be installed, a storage device must be chosen and prepared. Several types of storage devices are available and can be used to receive the new operating system, as shown in Figure 10-11. The two most common types of data storage devices used today are hard disk drives and flash memory–based drives such as solid-state hard drives and USB drives.

When the storage device type has been chosen, it must be prepared to receive the new operating system. Modern operating systems ship with an installer program. Installers usually prepare the disk to receive the operating system, but it is crucial for a technician to understand the terms and methods involved in this preparation.

Hard Drive Partitioning (10.2.1.2)

A hard drive is divided into areas called partitions. Each partition is a logical storage unit that can be formatted to store information, such as data files or applications. If you imagine a hard drive as a wooden cabinet, the partitions would be the shelves. During the installation process, most operating systems automatically partition and format available hard drive space.

Partitioning a drive is a simple process, but to ensure a successful boot, the firmware must know what disk and partition on that disk has an operating system installed. The partition scheme has a direct influence on the location of the operating systems on a disk. Finding and launching the operating system is one of the responsibilities of computer firmware. The partition scheme is very important to the firmware. Two of the most popular partition scheme standards are the Master Boot Record (MBR) and globally unique identifier (GUID) partition table (GPT).

Partitions and Logical Drives (10.2.1.3)

A hard drive can be segmented into different types of partitions and logical drives. A technician should understand the process and terms related to hard drive setup.

File Systems (10.2.1.5)

A new installation of an OS proceeds as if the disk were brand new. No information that is currently on the target partition is preserved. The first phase of the installation process partitions and formats the hard drive. This process prepares the disk to accept the new file system. The file system provides the directory structure that organizes the user’s operating system, application, configuration, and data files. There are many different kinds of file systems, and each one has different structure and logic. Different file systems also differ in terms of speed, flexibility, security, size, and more. Here are five common file systems:

• File Allocation Table, 32-bit (FAT32): FAT32 supports partition sizes up to 2 TB, or 2048 GB. The FAT32 file system is used by Windows XP and earlier OS versions.

• New Technology File System (NTFS): NTFS supports partition sizes up to 16 EB, in theory. NTFS incorporates file system security features and extended attributes. Windows 8.1, Windows 7, and Windows 10 automatically create a partition using the entire hard drive. If a user does not create custom partitions using the New option, the system formats the partition and begins installing Windows. If users create a partition, they can determine the size of the partition.

• exFAT (FAT64): exFAT was created to address some of the limitations of FAT, FAT32, and NTFS when formatting USB flash drives, such as file size and directory size. One of the primary advantages of exFAT is that it can support files larger than 4GB.

• Compact Disc File System (CDFS): CDFS was created specifically for optical disc media.

• Network File System (NFS): NFS is a network-based file system that allows file access over the network. From the user’s standpoint, there is no difference between accessing a file stored locally or on another computer on the network. NFS is an open standard which means anyone can implement it.

Multiple Partitions During Windows 10 Installation

Figure 10-12 shows the two partitions were created as a result of selecting Drive 0 Unallocated Space and clicking New in the Windows Setup process before the OS is installed. The installer also allows the user to specify the size of the new partition.

10.2.1.6 Video Demonstration - Disk Management Utility and Disk Partitioning

Refer to the online course to view this video.

10.2.1.7 Video Demonstration - Multiboot Procedures

Refer to the online course to view this video.

10.2.1.8 Lab - Create a Partition in Windows

In this lab, you will create a FAT32 formatted partition on a disk. You will convert the partition to NTFS. You will then identify the differences between the FAT32 format and the NTFS format.

Account Creation (10.3.1.2)

When users attempt to log onto a device or to access system resources, Windows uses the process of authentication to verify the identity of the users. Authentication occurs when a user enters a username and password to access a user account. Windows uses single sign-on (SSO) authentication, which allows a user to log in once to access all system resources rather than log in each time he or she needs to access an individual one.

User accounts allow multiple users to share a single computer using their own files and settings. Windows 10 offers two account types: Administrator and Standard User (see Figure 10-13). In previous versions of Windows, there was also a Guest account, but that was removed in Windows 10.

Administrator accounts have complete control over a computer. Users with this type of account can change settings globally, install programs, and run all applications by default with full administrative privileges, so it bypasses the use of User Account Control (UAC) when elevation to perform a task is required.

Standard User accounts have limited control over a computer. Users with this type of account can run applications, but they cannot install programs. A Standard User account can change system settings—but only settings that do not affect other user accounts.

Finalize the Installation (10.3.1.3)

To update the OS after the initial installation, Microsoft Windows Update is used to scan for new software and install service packs and patches.

After installation, verify that all hardware is installed correctly. Device Manager is used to locate device problems and install the correct or updated drivers in Windows.

Figure 10-14 shows the Windows Update and Device Manager utilities on Windows 10.

Disk Cloning (10.3.2.1)

Installing an OS on a single computer takes time. Imagine the time it would take to install operating systems on multiple computers, one at a time. To simplify this activity, administrators usually elect a computer to act as a base system and go through the regular operating system installation process. After the operating system is installed in the base computer, a specific program is used to duplicate all the information on its disk, sector by sector, to another disk. This new disk, usually an external device, then contains a fully deployed operating system and can be used to quickly deploy a fresh copy of the base operating system and any installed applications and data without the lengthy installation process or user involvement. Because the target disk now contains a sector-to-sector mapping of the original disk, the target disk contains an image of the original disk.

If an undesirable setting is accidentally included during the base installation, an administrator can use the Microsoft System Preparation (Sysprep) tool to remove it before creating the final image. Sysprep can be used to install and configure the same OS on multiple computers. Sysprep prepares the OS with different hardware configurations. With Sysprep, technicians can quickly install the OS, complete the last configuration steps, and then install applications.

To run Sysprep in Windows 10, open Windows Explorer and navigate to C:WindowsSystem32sysprep. You can also just type sysprep in the Run command box and click OK.

Figure 10-15 shows the Sysprep tool in Windows.

Other Installation Methods (10.3.2.2)

A standard installation of Windows is sufficient for most computers used in a home or small office environment, but there are cases when a custom installation process is required.

Take, for example, an IT support department; technicians in such environments must deploy hundreds or even thousands of Windows systems. Performing this many installations in the standard way is not feasible.

A standard installation is done via the installation medium (DVD or USB drive) provided by Microsoft, as shown in Figure 10-16, and is an interactive process; the installer prompts the user for settings such as time zone and system language.

A custom installation of Windows can save time and provide consistent configuration across computers within a large organization. A popular technique to install Windows across many computers is to perform installation in one computer and use it as a reference installation. When the installation is complete, an image is created. An image is a file that contains all the data from a partition.

When the image is ready, technicians can perform a much shorter installation by simply replicating and deploying the image to all computers in the organization. If the new installation requires any adjustments, they can be done quickly after the image is deployed.

Windows has several different types of custom installations:

• Network installation: This includes Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) installation, unattended installation, and remote installation.

• Image-based internal partition installation: This is a Windows image stored on an internal (often hidden) partition that can be used to restore Windows to its original factory state.

• Other types of custom installations: This includes Windows Advanced Startup Options, refreshing the PC (Windows 8.x only), System Restore, upgrade, repair installation, remote network installation, recovery partition, and refresh/restore.

Remote Network Installation (10.3.2.3)

A popular method for OS installation in environments with many computers is a remote network installation. With this method, the operating system installation files are stored on a server so that a client computer can access the files remotely to begin the installation. A software package such as Remote Installation Services (RIS) is used to communicate with the client, store the setup files, and provide the necessary instructions for the client to access the setup files, download them, and begin the operating system installation.

Because the client computer does not have an operating system installed, a special environment must be used to boot the computer, connect to the network, and communicate with the server to begin the installation process. This special environment is known as the PXE. For the PXE to work, the NIC must be PXE enabled. This functionality may come from the BIOS or the firmware on the NIC. When the computer is started, the NIC listens for special instructions on the network to start the PXE.

Figure 10-17 shows the client loading setup files from the PXE server over TFTP.

Unattended Network Installation (10.3.2.4)

Unattended installation, another type of network-based installation, allows a Windows system to be installed or upgraded with little user intervention. The Windows unattended installation is based on an answer file. This file contains simple text that instructs Windows Setup how to configure and install the OS.

To perform a Windows unattended installation, setup.exe must be run with the user options in the answer file. The installation process begins as usual, but instead of prompting the user, Setup uses the answers listed in the answer file.

To customize a standard Windows 10 installation, the System Image Manager (SIM), shown in Figure 10-18, is used to create the setup answer file. You can also add packages, such as applications or drivers, to answer files.

The answer file is copied to the distribution shared folder on a server. At this point, you can do one of two things:

• Run the unattended.bat file on the client machine to prepare the hard drive and install the OS from the server over the network.

• Create a boot disk that boots the computer and connects to the distribution shared folder on the server. You then run a batch file containing a set of instructions to install the OS over the network.

Recovery Partition (10.3.2.6)

Some computers that have Windows installed contain a section of the disk that is inaccessible to the user. This partition, called a recovery partition (see Figure 10-19), contains an image that can be used to restore the computer to its original configuration.

The recovery partition is often hidden to prevent it from being used for anything other than restoration. To restore the computer using the recovery partition, you often must use a special key or key combination when the computer is starting. Sometimes, the option to restore from the factory recovery partition is located in the BIOS or a program from the manufacturer that is accessed in Windows. Contact the computer manufacturer to find out how to access the partition and restore the original configuration of the computer.

Upgrade Methods (10.3.2.7)

There are two methods for upgrading a PC running Windows, as described in the sections that follow.

In-Place Upgrade

The simplest path to upgrade a PC that is currently running Windows 7 or Windows 8.1 to Windows 10 is through an in-place upgrade. This type of upgrade updates the operating system and migrates apps and settings to the new OS. The System Center Configuration Manager (Configuration Manager) task sequence can be used to completely automate the process. Figure 10-20 shows the Configuration Manager upgrade task sequence for Windows 10.

When upgrading Windows 7 or Windows 8 to Windows 10, the Windows installation program (Setup.exe) performs an in-place upgrade, which automatically preserves all data, settings, applications, and drivers from the existing operating system version. This saves effort because there is no need for complex deployment infrastructure.

Note

Be sure to back up any user data before performing the upgrade.

Windows Boot Sequence (10.3.3.1)

After POST, the BIOS locates and reads the configuration settings that are stored in the CMOS memory. The boot device priority, as shown in Figure 10-21, is the order in which devices are checked to locate the bootable partition. The boot device priority is set in the BIOS and can be arranged in any order. The BIOS boots the computer using the first drive that contains a valid boot sector. This sector contains the Master Boot Record (MBR). The MBR identifies the Volume Boot Record (VBR) and loads the boot manager, which for Windows is bootmgr.exe.

Hard drives, network drives, USB drives, and even removable media can be used in the boot order, depending on the capabilities of the motherboard. Some BIOSes also have a boot device priority menu that is accessed with a special key during computer startup. You can use this menu to select the device to boot, as shown in Figure 10-21.

Windows 7 Startup Modes (10.3.3.2)

Some problems prevent Windows from starting up. To troubleshoot and fix this kind of problem, use one of the many Windows startup modes.

Pressing the F8 key during the boot process opens the Windows Advanced Boot Options menu, as shown in Figure 10-22. This allows users to select how they wish to boot Windows. These are four commonly used startup options:

• Safe Mode: This diagnostic mode is used to troubleshoot Windows and Windows startup issues. Functionality is limited as many device drivers are not loaded.

• Safe Mode with Networking: This option starts Windows in Safe Mode with networking support.

• Safe Mode with Command Prompt: This option starts Windows and loads the command prompt instead of the GUI.

• Last Known Good Configuration: This option loads the configuration settings that were used the last time that Windows started successfully. It does this by accessing a copy of the Registry that is created for this purpose.

Windows 8 and 10 Startup Modes (10.3.3.3)

Both Windows 8 and Windows 10 boot too quickly to use F8 to access startup settings. Instead, press the Shift key and select the Restart option in the Power menu. Windows displays the Choose an Option screen. To get the startup settings, select Troubleshoot and then from the next screen select Advanced Options and then Startup Settings. On the next screen, select Restart. The computer restarts and displays the Startup Settings menu shown in Figure 10-23. To choose a startup option, use the number or function key (F1 through F9) that corresponds to the desired option.