Index
A
AC bus, 26
AC/DC bidirectional converter, 96
battery charge and discharge of, 97
AC/DC hybrid microgrid, 27
AC distribution box, 32
advantage of, 26
structure of, 26
AC-side voltage, 21
Active filtering technologies, 141–143
functions of, 143
AND gate, 80
Asynchronous generator
directly connected to the grid, schematic diagram, 35
B
Battery, 32
energy storage in, 45–46
flow battery, 46
lead-acid battery, 45
lithium-ion battery, 46
nickel-cadmium battery, 45
Beijing–Zhuhai Expressway, 11
Biomass
combustion, 41
gasification, 41
methane combustion, 42
power generation, forms, 41
Biomass energy, 41–42
combustion, 41
gasification, 41
methane combustion, 42
“Black start” function, 13
Broadband access technology, 118
Building-integrated-PV (BIPV) demonstration project, 11
Business Council of Australia, 149
C
Carrier-class services, 118
Central differential protection system
based on three-layer control architecture
schematic diagram of, 83
Centralized energy system, 30
Centrifugal compressor, 36
CESI RICERCA test, 2
China
analysis of current status in, 6–9
Electric Power Research Institute, 151
outside and analysis, current situation, 3–6
power quality standards, 150
related standards and specifications in, 150–151
Tang Dynasty, 36
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 8
Circuit breaker failure protection, 84
Classification, of microgrid, 23–27
by AC/DC type, 26–27
AC/DC hybrid microgrid, 27
DC microgrid, 26
by capacity, 25
corporate microgrid, 25
feeder area microgrid, 25
by function demand, 23–25
independent microgrid, 25
simple microgrid, 25
substation area microgrid, 25
Combined cooling and power (CCP) demonstration project, 3
Combined cooling, heat, and power (CCHP), 11
Communication, of microgrid, 115
architecture, 122
based active islanding detection, 88
design, 119–124
of distribution network dispatch layer, 124
functional model of, 120–121
of local control layer, 122
principles of, 116–117
scalability, 117
secure, reliable, and open, 116–117
unified planning and design, 116
typical solution to insular microgrid, 121–124
flowchart of, 121
insular microgrid, structure of, 122
layers by function, 121
monitoring communication network
architecture of, 120
special requirements on, 115–116
commonly recognized standards, 116
higher cost-effectiveness, 116
high integration, 115
high reliability, 116
structure, 119
communication network between control center and distribution network, 119
microgrid monitoring communication network, 119
technologies, See Communication technologies
Communication technologies, 117–119
optical fiber communication, 117–118
packet transport network (PTN), 118–119
PLC, 118
Complex sequence network diagram, 75
of short circuits, 75
Compressed air energy storage, 44
Conductors, kinds of, 125
Connection
based technology, 118
in hybrid mode, 35
via inverter, 34
Control and operation, of microgrid, 47–54
dynamic under-frequency load shedding control, 52
grid-connected operation, flowchart of, 64
grid connection control, 56–59
conditions for, 56–57
grid-connection logic, 57–59
grid separation control, 56–63
islanding of microgrid, 59–60
transfer from grid-connected mode to islanded mode, 60–63
constant-voltage control, 49–51
dynamic generator tripping, 51–53
load shedding control, 51–54
steady-state constant-frequency, 49–51
inverter control, 54–55
grid-tie inverter, 54
power converter system (PCS), 54–55
islanded operation
flowchart of, 66
schematic diagram of, 60
microgrid connected to distribution network
system diagram and phasor diagram for, 57
microgrid using solid-state switch, structure of, 62
no-voltage grid-connection logic, 58
operation, 64–67
grid-connected operation, 64–65
islanded operation, 65–67
deficient DG output, 67
excessive DG output, 67
generator tripping, 66
high DG output, 66
load shedding in, 65
PCS, block diagram of, 55
smooth transfer from grid-connected mode to islanded mode, flowchart of, 63
stable voltage and frequency zones, classification of, 49
steady-state constant-frequency and constant-voltage control, 50
synchronization-based grid-connection logic, 58
transfer from islanded mode to grid-connected mode
flowchart of, 59
unsmooth transfer from grid-connected mode to islanded mode
flowchart of, 62
Controller area network (CAN), 5
Control modes, of microgrid, 16–23
combined mode, 18
inverter control modes, 18–23
master–slave mode, 16–17
peer-to-peer mode, 17–18
Control system, 38–41
structure of, 16
Control technologies, for connection to and disconnection, 7
Converter system, 38
battery control and management unit, 38
master inverter power unit, 38
power regulation unit, 38
soft start and rectifier unit, 38
Cooling and power demonstration project, 9
Crystalline silicon solar cell, 31
C-type high-pass filter
performance of, 140
Current differential protection, block diagram of, 81
Current quick-break protection, 71
D
DC bus, 27
DC combiner box, 32
DC microgrid, 26
advantages of, 26
disadvantage of, 26
Demand response (DR), 1
Department of Electrical Engineering, 7
Department of Energy (DOE), 3
Differential relay protection
of distribution network, 80–84
back-up protection, 84
main protection, differential protection, 80–84
Direct connection, 34
characteristics of, 29
definition, 29
active power of, 102
advantages, 30
asynchronous generator directly connected to the grid, schematic diagram, 35
characteristics of, 105
collecting information of, 91
concepts and characteristics, 29–31
doubly fed induction generator connected to grid in a hybrid mode, schematic diagram, 36
droop control model of, 17
energy storage, 43–46
battery, 45–46
compressed air, 44
pumped storage, 43–44
supercapacitor, 45
superconducting magnetic ES (SMES), 44–45
feeder unit
with, 85
without, 85
grid connected PV power system, structure of, 33
higher penetration of, 30
independent PV power system, structure of, 32
independent wind power system, structure of, 34
integration to, 59
distribution network
at the feeder end, 73
at the head of feeder, 74
in the middle of feeder, 73
interconnection of, 152
islanding protection of, 61
maximum integration of, 11
microgrid and, 29
microturbine, 35–41
components of, 37–38
control system, 38–41
converter system, 38
high-speed AC generator, 38
regenerator, 38
penetration of, 117
photovoltaics, 31–33
plug-and-play of, 18
sources connected to the grid
schematic diagrams of, 70
sources, types of, 69
AC–DC–AC sources, 69
AC sources, 69
DC sources, 69
special fault characteristics of, 69–71
synchronous generator connected to the grid via inverter, schematic diagram, 35
biomass energy, 41–42
geothermal energy, 41
ocean energy, 42–43
uses, 10
voltage of, 14
wind energy, 33–35
Distributed generators (DGs), 11
Distributed power supply system technologies, 6
grid-connection of, 132
integration of, 151
types of, 7
connected with a microgrid
protection scheme for, 79–89
patterns of, 71
Distribution system
containing multiple microgrids, protection for
schematic diagram of, 81
Double-tuned filter, 140
circuit diagrams of, 140
Doubly fed induction generator
connected to grid in a hybrid mode, schematic diagram, 36
Droop control model, 18
Dynamic generator tripping, 51–53
Dynamic under-frequency load shedding control, 52
E
Earthing, of microgrid, 125
advantages and disadvantages, 131
low-voltage distribution network, secure earthing of, 125–132
IT earthing system, 130–132
TN earthing system, 126–129
TT earthing system, 129–130
of multisource system, 134
protective, See Protective earthing
system earthing of, 132–136
earthing mode of DG in TN/TT earthing system, 132–136
requirements for, 132
TN-C earthing system, schematic diagram of, 127
Electricity generation, 31
Electrification technologies, 42
Emergency power system (EPS), 44
automatic recovery after transfer from islanding to grid connection, 162
distributed generation (DG)
forecast of, 101–102
frequency response characteristics of, 103–105
response speed of, 103
distribution system interconnected with microgrid
coordinated control of, 100
energy storage charge and discharge curve control, 161
grid connection and separation control, 161
loads
forecast, 102–103
frequency response characteristics of, 103–105
model of controller, 100
power balance, 105–110
in grid-connected operation, 105–106
in islanded operation, 107–110
during transition from grid-connected mode to islanded mode, 106–107
power balance control in islanded mode, 161
power exchange control in emergency, 161
battery, 45–46
charge and discharge functions of, 17
compressed air, 44
monitoring, 96
intended for, 96
operation monitoring screen of, 27
pumped storage, 43–44
response time of, 103
state of charge (SOC) of, 49
supercapacitor, 45
superconducting magnetic ES (SMES), 44–45
types of, uses, 10
Ethernet passive optical network (EPON)
advantages, 117
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization, 149
European Union (EU), 5–6
microgrid model proposed by, 6
F
Fast-moving tidal currents, 42
Filter design, determination of, 141
Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), 4
Flexible Reliability and Intelligent Electrical Energy Delivery System (FRIENDS), 4
Flow battery, 46
Forward impedance relay, 86
Frequency response model, 104
G
Generator tripping control, 109
Generic Object Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE), 81
communication mechanism, 82
Geothermal energy, 41
Geothermal power systems, 41
Golden Sun Demonstration Project, 9
Grid-connected mode
current waveform of
PCS during transfer from islanded mode to, 171
PCS during transfer to islanded mode, 167
PV inverter during transfer from islanded mode to, 171
PV inverter during transfer to islanded mode, 168
voltage spectrum of 380 V busbar in, 165
islanded mode, 170
voltage trend during transfer to islanded mode, 168
voltage waveform of 380 V busbar in, 165
in islanded mode, 169
during transfer from islanded mode to, 171
during transfer to islanded mode, 167
automatic voltage and reactive power control, 65
central dispatch by distribution network, 65
economic and optimal dispatch, 64–65
flowchart of, 64
forecast of intermittent DG output, 65
load forecast, 65
power exchange, forecast of, 65
power-matched operation, 14
power-mismatched operation, 14
standards, 154
Grid connection control, 56–59
conditions for, 56–57
grid-connection logic, 57–59
Grid-connection logic, 57–59
no-voltage grid-connection, 57–58
synchronization-based grid-connection, 58
Grid separation control, 56–63
islanding of microgrid, 59–60
transfer from grid-connected mode to islanded mode, 60–63
active filtering of, 137–138
H
Harmonic control, of microgrid, 137
active filtering technologies, 141–143
double-tuned filter, circuit diagrams of, 140
high-pass filter, circuit diagrams of, 140
passive filtering technologies, 138–141
single-tuned filter, impedance-frequency characteristic of
circuit diagram, 139
system configuration, block diagram of, 142
technologies, 137–138
grid tie inverter, active filtering of, 137–138
separately configured filtering technologies, 137–138
three-phase active power filter, circuit diagrams of, 142
Harmonic sources, measurement and analysis of, 141
Hefei University of Technology, 8
Henan College of Finance and Taxation, 11
Henan Electric Power Company, 9
High-energy permanent magnetic materials, NdFeB, 36
High-pass filters
circuit diagrams of, 140
types of, 140
High-penetration independent microgrid, 47
High-power solid-state switch, 61
High-speed AC generator, 38
High-speed microturbine, 36
High-speed single-shaft microturbine, 40
High Voltage Apparatus Research Institute Co., Ltd., 153
High-voltage (HV) systems, 80
I
IEC 61850 communication protocol, 13
IEC 61850-9-2 + GOOSE communication protocol, 123
IEC 61850 process layer, 123
IEC standards, 147–148
IEC TS 62257 Recommendations, 145
IEC TS 62257-9-2 Recommendations, 148
IEEE standards
IEEE 1588 clock synchronization protocol, 81
IEEE 1547 IEEE Standard, 132
IEEE 519-1992 standard, 147
IEEE 1547 standard, 146–147
Impedance relays, 85
Imperial College London control and power research center, 2
Independent microgrid
characteristics of, 53
constant-voltage control, 49–51
dynamic generator tripping, 51–53
load shedding control, 51–54
steady-state constant-frequency, 49–51
Instantaneous current tripping, types of, 72
Institute of Electrical Engineering, 8
Insular microgrid, structure of, 122
Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) inverter, 143
bridge, 38
operation screens of, 18
Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs), 123
International standards and specifications, 145–150
China, related standards and specifications in, 150–151
microgrid standards
development trend of, 151–152
other related standards, 148–150
related IEC standards, 147–148
related IEEE standards, 145–147
Inverter control, 54–55
grid-tie inverter, 54
modes, 18–23
droop control, 22–23
schematic diagram of, 20
U/f control, 20–21
droop control characteristic, 22
schematic diagram of, 21
power converter system (PCS), 54–55
IP service transport, 118
deficient DG output, control in case of, 67
excessive DG output, control in case of, 67
flowchart of, 66
over-frequency/over-voltage, generator tripping in case of, 66
relatively high DG output, control in case of, 66
standards, 153
under-frequency/under-voltage, load shedding in case of, 65–66
Islanding protection, 88
at PCC, logical diagram of, 88
IT earthing system, 130–132
advantages, 131
schematic diagram of, 131
J
Japan, 4–5
Sendai system, 2
K
Kalman filtering method, 102
L
Large grid system, 51
LC filter, 138
Lead-acid battery, 45
Lithium-ion battery, 46
Load
fluctuation, 51
forecast methods, 103
monitoring, intended for, 97
Local control layer, 82
Local three-phase five-wire system, 128
Low-voltage (LV) circuit, 60
distribution circuits, 11
Low-voltage distribution network, secure earthing of, 125–132
IT earthing system, 130–132
TN earthing system, 126–129
TT earthing system, 129–130
Low-voltage (LV) distribution systems, 125
earthing mode of, 132
forms of, 125
measurement, Boolean values of, 13
Low-voltage (LV) LC single-tuned filter, 138
M
Master–slave control, 17
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT), 33
Micro gas turbine, 35
Microgrid, 29
advantages, 31
based automatic communication, 116
China
analysis of current status in, 6–9
outside and analysis, current situation, 3–6
classification, See Classification, of microgrid
communication system of, See Communication, of microgrid
connected to distribution network
system diagram and phasor diagram for, 57
control modes, See Control modes, of microgrid
daily busbar voltage curve of, 20
daily system frequency curve of, 21
energy management, 101
European Union (EU), 5–6
goals of, 3
history of, 1–3
integration of, 73
Japan, 4–5
load controller, schematic diagram of, 15
under master–slave control, architecture of, 15
model proposed
by CERTS, 4
by the EU, 6
monitoring communication network, architecture of, 120
operation modes, See Operation modes, of microgrid
overview of, 1
as part of European electricity networks, 5
under peer-to-peer control, architecture of, 18
power exchange between distribution network and microgrid, 14
P/Q control, schematic diagram of, 20
prospects, 9–10
requirements, 79
specific standards, 145
structure, See Structure, of microgrid
technologies, 6
three-layer control system of, 12
microgrid control, structure of, 12
transfer between operation modes, 15
types of, 47
grid-connected microgrid, 47
independent microgrid, 47
USA, 3–4
using solid-state switch, structure of, 62
utilization and control, 3
Microgrid standard system, 152–154
development trend of, 151–152
path of load current in, 74
components of, 37–38
combustor, 37
compressor, 37
turbine, 38
control system, 38–41
structure of, 39
converter system, 38
high-speed AC generator, 38
intended for, 94
operation and alarm information of, 94
power converter system of, 39
profile of, 37
regenerator, 38
single-shaft microturbine connected to the grid through inverter, 40
split-shaft microturbine directly connected to the grid, 40
Monitoring and energy management, of microgrid, 91
energy management, 101–110
monitoring, 91–101
optimized control, 110–113
ESs, various types of, 112–113
optimized dispatch strategies, 113
of PV power, 111–112
of wind power, 112
Monitoring communication network, 119
Monitoring system, 91–101
centralized and decentralized, 5
composition of, 91–98
ES monitoring, 95–97
load monitoring, 97–98
microturbine monitoring, 94–95
monitoring of power sources, 95
PV monitoring, 93–94
design of, 98–101
coordination between microgrid and utility grid, 101
distributed generation (DG)
integration of, 99–111
output, forecast of, 100
microgrid
load control, 101
multilevel optimized dispatch of, 101
power output control, 101
protection of, 99
voltage/reactive power balance and control, 101
energy management software, functional architecture of, 92
Multiagent-based uninterrupted substation power coordination system, 8
N
National Key Laboratory, 7
National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), 1
New Energy & Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), 4
Nickel-cadmium battery, 45
No-voltage grid-connection logic, 58
O
Ocean energy, 42–43
Operation administration and maintenance (OAM), 118
Operation and protection strategies, of microgrid, 78–79
differential relay protection of distribution network, 80–84
LV distribution network based on directional impedance relay, 84–88
requirements on primary equipment and relay protection of distribution network, 79–80
Operation constraints, 55
ES, 166
integrated monitoring system, 162
deficient DG output, 67
excessive DG output, 67
generator tripping, 66
high DG output, 66
load shedding in, 65
PV system, 162–166
Optical fiber communication, 117–118
Optimized dispatch strategies, 113
energy balance control in islanded operation, 113
power exchange management in grid-connected mode, 113
Outer-loop voltage control, 21
Overcurrent protection, logical diagram of, 88
P
Parallel-connected single-tuned filters, 140
Parallel-connection technology, 22
Passive circuit, 137
Passive filtering technologies, 138–141
basic principles of, 138–141
double-tuned filter, 140–141
high-pass filter, 139–140
passive filter, design of, 141
single-tuned filter, 139
Permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), 38
generation, 29
grid-connected PV power system, 32–33
independent PV power system, 31–32
monitoring, 91
functions of, 93
operation and alarm information of, 93
power, 13
power system, See Photovoltaics (PV) power system
PV–ES combined microgrid system
primary connection, of schematic diagram of, 12
sources
characteristics of, 111
independent, structure of, 32
structure of Grid connected, 33
Photovoltaics (PV) system, 162–166
100 kW PV inverter, daily output curve of, 24
monitoring screen of operation, 22
output of, 169
PI controller, 19
“Plug and play” communication, 116
schematic diagram of, 14
Power
deficiency, 106
frequency alternating current, 40
matched operation, 14
mismatched operation, 14
Power control system, 11
block diagram of, 55
operation and alarm information of, 95
switches, 167
Power converter system (PCS), 54–55
battery management system (BMS), 55
block diagram of, 55
for photovoltaic (PV) power, 137
P/Q control, 54
U/f control, 54
advantages, 118
disadvantages, 118
Power Supply Bureau of Chancheng District, 9
Power System and Generating Equipment Safety Control and Simulation, 7
decoupled control strategy, 19
schematic diagram of, 20
Precision clock synchronization protocol, 82
Producing electricity, 33
Projects
background, 155
description, 155–157
system design, 157–162
energy management system, 160–162
ES circuits, 158
load circuits, 158
LV busbar circuit, 159
microgrid central controller (MGCC), 160
monitoring system, 160
point of common coupling (PCC) circuit, 158–159
PV system, 158
three-layer control system, 157–158
Protection, of microgrid, 69
back-up protection for distribution transformers, 85
central differential protection system based on three-layer control architecture
schematic diagram of, 83
complex sequence network diagram of short circuits, 75
current differential protection, block diagram of, 81
distributed generation (DG)
feeder unit with, 85
feeder unit without, 85
integrated to the distribution network
at the feeder end, 73
at the head of feeder, 74
in the middle of feeder, 73
sources connected to the grid
schematic diagrams of, 70
special fault characteristics of, 69–71
distribution network
connected with a microgrid
protection scheme for, 79–89
patterns of, 71
distribution system containing multiple microgrids, protection for
schematic diagram of, 81
in islanded operation, schematic diagram of, 87
islanding protection at PCC, logical diagram of, 88
microgrid operation and protection strategies, 78–79
differential relay protection of distribution network, 80–84
LV distribution network based on directional impedance relay, 84–88
requirements on primary equipment and relay protection of distribution network, 79–80
microgrid system, path of load current in, 74
overcurrent protection, logical diagram of, 88
at point of common coupling (PCC) circuit, 88–89
relay protection of distribution network, effects of microgrid, 71–78
impacts of microgrid on, 73–74
traditional distribution network, protection of, 71–72
traditional LV distribution network, protection of, 72
impacts of microgrid, 74–78
single-phasetoearth fault, diagram of, 76
synchronous grid connection, logical diagram of, 89
three-phase short circuit, diagram of, 75
two-phase short circuit, diagram of, 76
Protection strategies, 78
Protective earthing, 125, See also Earthing, of microgrid
Pumped storage, 43–44
R
Reactive power, 14
Real-time monitoring, 91
Regenerator, 38
Relay protection of distribution network, effects of microgrid, 71–78
impacts of microgrid on, 73–74
traditional distribution network, protection of, 71–72
traditional LV distribution network, protection of, 72
impacts of microgrid, 74–78
Renewable energy, 146
Renewable sources, 110
Residual current device (RCD), 127
Reverse droop control, 22
Robust macrogrid, 116
S
Scalability, 117
Sea current electrification, 42
Separately configured filtering technologies, 137–138
Shaanxi Electric Power Company, 9
Shed loads, 108
Short-circuit impedance, 77
Single controllable power system, 101
Single-phase-to-earth fault, 131
diagram of, 76
Single-shaft microturbine, 36
Single-tuned filter
calculation of parameters of, 141
impedance-frequency characteristic of, circuit diagram, 139
Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) technology, 137
Small electric power system, microgrid, 1
Smart power networks, 5
Solar cell array, 31
Solar radiation energy, 43
Speed-variable gear, 40
Split-shaft microturbine, 40
Stable voltage and frequency zones, 47
classification of, 49
zone A, 47
zone B, 49
zone C, 49
zone D, 49
scientific research programs, 153
State of charge (SOC), 98
and constant-voltage control, 50
Steady-state energy management system, 49
Stray current, 132
centralized control layer, 13
distribution network dispatch layer, 13
local control layer, 14
Supercapacitor, 45
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), 44–45
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), 13
Switched telephone network, 115
Synchronization-based grid-connection logic, 58
Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)
advantages of, 118
Synchronous generator
connected to the grid via inverter, schematic diagram, 35
Synchronous grid connection, logical diagram of, 89
System design, of microgrid
distribution network, dispatch of, 162
System earthing, 125
System frequency, 51
T
Telecontrol equipment, 14
Tests, 167–172
ES charge and discharge control, 172
grid-connection recovery test, 172
islanded operation test, 169
power exchange control, 172
on transfer from
grid-connected mode to islanded mode, 167–169
islanded mode to grid-connected mode, 169–172
Thermal gradient electrification, 43
Thermal power generation, 41
Three-layer control system, 157–158
Three-layer microgrid control scheme, 11
Three-phase active power filter
circuit diagrams of, 142
circuit of, 141
Three-phase short circuit, diagram of, 75
Tidal current electrification, 42
Tide electrification, 42
Time division multiple access (TDMA), 117
Time over-current protection, 71
TN-C earthing system, 126
advantages, 126
disadvantages, 127
RCD in, 128
schematic diagram of, 127
TN-C-S earthing system, 128
schematic diagram of, 129
TN earthing system, 126–129
advantage of, 126
TN-C, See TN-C earthing system
TN-C-S, See TN-C-S earthing system
TN-S, See TN-S earthing system
TN-S earthing system, 127
advantages, 127
schematic diagram of, 128
Tokyo gas microgrid, 2
Traditional electric power system, 69
Traditional LV distribution network, protection of
impacts of microgrid, 74–78
single-phase-to-earth fault, 76–78
three-phase short circuit, 75
two-phase short circuit, 75–76
Transient fault protection, 53–54
functions, 53
Transient stability, 53
frequency regulation of, 44
TT earthing system, 129–130
schematic diagram of, 130
Two-phase short circuit, diagram of, 76
U
droop control characteristic, 22
schematic diagram of, 21
Unintentional islanding, 60
Uninterrupted power supply (UPS), 44
USA, 3–4
Utility grid, 47
V
Virtual power plants (VPPs), 1
Voltage and trip generators, 13
Voltage drop, 129
Voltage source inverter (VSI), 22
W
Wave electrification, 43
Wind energy, 33–35
grid-connected wind power system, 34–35
independent wind power system, 34
Wind power monitoring, 94
grid-connected, 34
independent, structure of, 34
Wind-produced electricity, 34
Wind turbine generators, 34
operation and alarm information of, 94
Z
Zhejiang Electric Power Company, 8
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