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IDIOLECT
Personal language, including the words people use and other characteristics of how they speak or write, is called their idiolect. Idiolect is similar to dialect; however, dialect relates to the way a group of people speak or write.
IDIOMS
An idiom is a phrase that is easily understood by the speakers of a particular language; however, the meaning is different from the normal meaning of the words.
Example: A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
Example: a chip on your shoulder
Example: a drop in the bucket
I.E., E.G.
IF, WHEN, WHETHER
If is often used in casual speaking. If is used when there is a condition.
Incorrect: If you don’t know if [should be whether] the front door is locked, you better get up and check it.
Correct: If you don’t change the oil in your car, your engine won’t last long.
Whether should be used in formal writing.
When discussing two possible alternatives, whether should be used.
Example: It’s important to find out whether your guests prefer red or white wine.
Whether is used when there is uncertainty about the possible outcome.
Do not use whether or not if there is uncertainty about the outcome.
Only use whether or not to mean under any circumstances.
When is used when the passage of time is involved in the condition.
Example: You can finish your homework when we finish discussing this matter.
ILLICIT, ELICIT
ILLUSION, ALLUSION
ILLUSTRATIONS
I, ME, MYSELF
Speakers and writers are often confused on when to use I, me, and myself, especially in sentences involving other people.
Use the word I when speaking of yourself as the subject of a sentence.
Example: I live north of Atlanta.
Use the word me when someone else is doing something to or for you.
Example: John threw the football to me.
Use the word myself only when you are doing something to yourself.
Example: Rather than taking the train, I’m going to drive myself to work today.
When another person is added to a sentence and there is a choice between I, me, or myself, one good test is to remove the other person and see if the sentence makes sense.
Incorrect: Jennifer and me live north of Atlanta. [Remove “Jennifer”: Me lives north of Atlanta.]
Correct: Jennifer and I live north of Atlanta.
Incorrect: John threw the football to Jennifer and I. [Remove “Jennifer”: John threw the football to I.]
Correct: John threw the football to Jennifer and me.
Incorrect: Rather than taking the train, I’m going to drive Jennifer and me to work today. [Remove “Jennifer”: I’m going to drive me to work today.]
Correct: Rather than taking the train, I’m going to drive Jennifer and myself to work today.
IMMANENT, EMINENT
See Eminent, Imminent, Immanent.
IMMIGRATE, EMIGRATE
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Imperative mood is an attitude in writing or speaking that involves giving directives, orders, or strong suggestions.
Example: Get out of my office!
Example: Get those reports in my office by noon.
Imperative sentences do not have subjects. The pronoun you is understood to be the subject.
Questions are often tagged to the end of imperative sentences.
Example: Leave your shoes outside, will you?
IMPLY, INFER
To correctly use these words in your writing, consider these tips:
If you are giving someone else an idea, you can imply.
If you are receiving an idea from someone else, you can infer.
When deciding whether to use imply or infer, use imply when something is suggested without being clearly stated.
Use infer when trying to arrive at a decision based on facts.
INANIMATE NOUNS
Inanimate nouns are nouns that identify nonliving things. Inanimate nouns identify places, things, and ideas.
Example: Austin, Texas, car, house, ceremony, speech
INAUGURATE
Don’t use inaugurate in place of started or began.
Incorrect: The program inaugurated on August 1.
Correct: The program began on August 1.
Correct: The president of the United States was inaugurated on January 4.
INCHOATIVE VERBS
Inchoative verbs describe states of change.
Example: The strawberries have ripened.
Example: She has aged a lot.
INDEFINITE ARTICLES
The determiners a and an are indefinite articles. Indefinite articles are used before singular nouns that have a plural form.
Example: a tree, a boy, an apple
The indefinite article a is used before consonant sounds and an is used before vowel sounds.
Example: a woman, a display, an umbrella, an intellectual
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
The indefinite pronouns everybody, anybody, somebody, all, each, every, some, none, and one do not substitute for specific nouns but act as nouns themselves.
One of the problems with the indefinite pronoun everybody is that it seems to be plural but takes a singular verb.
Example: Everybody is coming.
The indefinite pronoun none can be either singular or plural. It is usually always plural except when something else in the sentence forces it to be singular.
Example: None of the students are failing.
Example: None of the water is salty.
Some can be singular or plural depending on whether it refers to something countable or not countable.
Example: Some of the whipped cream is gone.
Example: Some of the footballs are not being used.
Some indefinite pronouns also double as determiners, such as enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, several, more, most, all, both, every, each, any, either, neither, none, and some.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
An independent clause could stand by itself as a sentence. When an independent clause is included in a sentence, it is usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
Example: Charlie didn’t mean to run away, but he did it because he was angry.
In this example, two independent clauses are separated by a comma and a coordinating conjunction but. If the word but was missing, this example would be a comma splice.
Being able to recognize when a clause is independent is essential to knowing when to use commas, thereby avoiding sentence fragments and run-on sentences.
Two independent clauses can be combined into a single thought. Clauses can be combined three different ways:
With coordination—using coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and sometimes so. By using a coordinating conjunction, you avoid monotony and what is often called “primer language,” simple sentence constructions.
Example: The book was long, but I couldn’t put it down.
With subordination—turning one of the independent clauses into a subordinate element using a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun. When the clause begins with a subordinating word, it transforms into a dependent clause.
Example: Linda never liked to fly in airplanes, because she was afraid of heights.
By using a semicolon—with or without the help of a conjunctive adverb. Semicolons should be used only when the two independent clauses are very closely related and nicely balanced in length and content.
Example: Sheena is a very pretty girl; she looks like an angel.
INDEX
Indexes are often created for large business documents and included at the end of the manuscript. Indexes alphabetically list keywords with either the page numbers where they can be found or hyperlinks to the pages in online documents. Some word processing software, such as Microsoft Word, creates an index automatically; however, you must manually omit unneeded words from the index.
When creating an index, consider these tips:
All headings and subheadings in a document should be included in the index.
Also identify and include keywords. (Word processing software allows you to mark keywords throughout the document.)
Consolidate entries that are similar with common phrasing.
Example: Print Documents, Printing Documents, Using the Print Function all become Printing.
A detailed index may include synonym entries with a See reference to the actual keywords used in the document.
Example: Monitors—See Displays
Index entries that appear on many different pages should include subordinated entries.
Example:
hard drives:
error checking, 218
formatting, 166
replacing, 172
The first word of each entry has an initial capital letter. Subsequent words should be lowercase. Add a comma between the index entry and the page number.
Index entries, as well as subordinated entries, should be alphabetized.
Numeric entries in an index should appear before the A-letter entries and should be ordered numerically with the smallest numbers first.
Figure 2.4 shows a sample index.
INDICATIVE MOOD
The indicative mood is an attitude for writing or speaking and is used in sentences that make a statement, affirm or deny something, or ask a question.
Example: Larry writes in his notebook.
Example: Mary goes to bed.
Indicative mood deals with facts, as well as confirming or denying things.
Example: Is the city still working on a wastewater control plan?
INDIRECT OBJECTS
An indirect object identifies to what or for whom the action of a verb is performed. A direct object receives the action in a sentence. There must be a direct object to have an indirect object.
Example: Mike gave Sally [indirect object] the report.
Example: The CEO told us [indirect object] about the layoffs.
INDIRECT SPEECH
Indirect speech is commonly used in journalism to report what someone said without including his or her exact words. Indirect speech is often called “reported speech” and includes third-person narration.
The tense of the verbs is usually changed, and the verb said is often used.
Example: She said she wanted to visit Europe. [Her exact words were, “I want to visit Europe.”]
INDUCTIVE ANTONOMASIA
When a specific name or brand name becomes the general term in the language, this phenomenon is called inductive antonomasia.
Example: aspirin, Kleenex, Xerox, Google, Band-Aid
INFINITIVES
An infinitive is formed with the root of a verb and the word to.
Example: To be, or not to be.
A present infinitive describes a present condition.
Example: I like to dream.
The perfect infinitive describes a time earlier than that described by the verb.
Example: I would like to have slept until nine.
When combined with auxiliary verb forms, infinitives can also express concepts of time.
Simple forms
Example: We had planned to watch the Super Bowl.
Example: Seeing the Cowboys win is always a great thrill.
Perfect forms
Example: The Cowboys hoped to have won the Super Bowl.
Example: I was thrilled about their having been in the big game.
Passive forms
Example: To be chosen as an NFL player must be the biggest thrill in any football player’s life.
Example: Being chosen, however, doesn’t mean you get to play.
Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive—the root verb preceded by to—along with modifiers or complements.
Infinitive phrases can act as adjectives, nouns, or adverbs.
As an adjective
Example: His plan to eliminate smoking [adjective modifying “plan”] was widely popular.
Example: To watch him eat [noun subject] ribs is something you have to see.
As an adverb
Example: Eric went to college to study to be an engineer [explains why he went].
INFLECTION
Inflection involves changing the form of a word by adding an affix. Usually this is done to change the number of items or to change the tense. Adding an s or an ed to a word is a common example of inflection.
Example: cat, cats; talk, talked
INHERENT AND NONINHERENT ADJECTIVES
Adjectives that relate a certain attribute or the quality of a noun are known as inherent adjectives.
Noninherent adjectives do not relate any particular attribute or quality about the noun they modify.
The same word can be used as either an inherent or noninherent adjective depending on the context of a sentence.
Example: He looked out at the distant [inherent] hills.
Example: He didn’t know much about his distant [noninherent] relatives.
INITIALISMS, ACRONYMS
INNUENDO
Innuendo is a figure of speech that involves a remark about someone or something that suggests something bad or inappropriate.
When the implied content is sexual in nature, it is called sexual innuendo.
IN ORDER TO
In expressions with in order + infinitive, the in order can be omitted without affecting the meaning of the sentence.
Example: We will go to the library in order to get a book.
Example: We will go to the library to get a book.
In order to means the same as so that.
Example: We will go the library so that Susan can get a book.
No commas are used to punctuate so that.
INQUIRE, ENQUIRE
IN-SENTENCE LISTS
INSIDE OF, WITHIN
Don’t use inside of where you could use within.
Incorrect: He will visit us inside of a week.
Correct: He will visit us within a week.
INSURE, ENSURE, ASSURE
INTENSIVE PRONOUNS
Intensive pronouns (myself, yourself, herself, ourselves, and themselves) consist of a personal pronoun plus the suffix self or selves. Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize a noun.
Example: I myself didn’t play baseball.
INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are words or phrases used to communicate excitement, orders, or protests. Sometimes interjections can be used by themselves, but often they are contained in more complex sentence structures.
Example: Oh, I didn’t realize you were here.
Example: No, you shouldn’t have done that.
Most interjections are treated as parenthetical elements and are set apart from the rest of the sentence by commas or a set of commas. If the interjection is very forceful, it is followed with an exclamation point.
Example: Wow, I can’t believe it!
INTERNET, INTRANET, EXTRANET
The Internet, also known as the World Wide Web, consists of a network of computers that are accessible using an Internet protocol (IP) address. Internet is capitalized.
An intranet is a network within an organization or company. Intranet is not capitalized unless it starts a sentence.
An extranet is a part of an organization’s intranet that is available to authorized outsiders. Extranet is not capitalized unless it starts a sentence.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Interrogative pronouns (what, who, which) are used to introduce questions.
Example: What is that?
Example: Who is coming?
Example: Which dog do you like best?
Which is used for specific reference rather than what.
Example: Which dogs do you like best? [refers to individual dogs]
Example: What dogs do you like best? [refers to general dog breeds]
Interrogative pronouns can also act as determiners. In this role, the pronouns are called interrogative adjectives.
Example: It doesn’t matter which road you take.
Interrogative pronouns are used to introduce noun clauses.
Example: what I thought about it
Like relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns play a subject role in the clause they introduce.
Example: I already said what I thought.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
An interrogative sentence is used when asking a question.
Example: Is that your dog?
Questions that can be answered with yes or no are called yes/no interrogatives.
Alternative interrogatives are questions that offer the possibility of two or more responses.
Example: Should I use the post office or email to contact you?
Questions that begin with a wh- word are called wh interrogatives.
Example: Who made those cookies?
Example: Where did you go?
INTRANET
See Internet, Intranet, Extranet.
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Intransitive verbs do not require objects. Intransitive verbs usually have just a subject plus the verb and an optional adverb.
Example: She complains too much.
INTRODUCTORY MODIFIER
INVITE
Don’t confuse invite (a verb) with invitation (a noun).
Incorrect: I have an invite to the party.
Correct: I have an invitation to the party.
IRONY
Irony is a literary technique where the speaker or writer says one thing, but the meaning is something completely different. Irony is often humorous in nature. When a statement uses irony, it is said to be ironic. Irony can also imply tragedy or a twist of fate.
Example: “It is a fitting irony that under Richard Nixon, launder became a dirty word.”—William Zinsser
IRREGULAR PLURALS
Irregular plurals are words that change form and spelling to specify more than one.
Example: child, children; woman, women; man, men; mouse, mice; person, people
IRREGULAR SPELLING
Common irregular spellings to watch closely are:
acknowledgment
awful
judgment
ninth
truly
wholly
Words ending in -ceed, -cede, and -sede may sound the same, but pay attention to their spelling. Here are examples:
exceed
intercede
precede
proceed
recede
secede
succeed
supersede The only English word that ends in -sede is supersede. The only English words that end in -ceed are exceed, proceed, and succeed.
Watch for -ant and -ent endings:
correspondent
eminent
relevant
Watch for -ance and -ence endings:
occurrence
perseverance
Watch for -able and -ible endings:
accessible
affordable
comfortable
compatible
deductible
Don’t omit the silent letters:
abscess
acquisition
diaphragm
hemorrhage
silhouette
Don’t be confused over double consonants:
accommodate
commitment
necessary
occurrence
Some words are not spelled the way they are pronounced:
asterisk
auxiliary
boundary
prerogative
separate
IRREGULAR VERBS
Most verbs form the simple past and past participle by adding -ed to the base verb.
Example: He walked. He has walked.
Some irregular verbs do not follow this pattern. Common verbs such as to be and to have have irregular forms.
Example: He is. They are. He has. They had.
ISOCOLON
Isocolon is a figure of speech that uses parallelism involving words or phrases that are the same length.
Example: No ifs, ands, or buts.
Example: “They have suffered severely, but they have fought well.” —Winston Churchill
Example: “I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse.”—Charles V
ITALICS
Italics are sometimes used for emphasis.
Example: Notice where you are, not where you have been.
Italics are used for the names of books, pamphlets, and periodicals:
Example: Saturday Evening Post, Black Beauty, Washington Daily News
The names of ships are italicized but not the abbreviations preceding them:
Example: Sea Witch, USS Heinz
ITS, IT’S
Its (without an apostrophe) is a possessive pronoun.
Correct: The ship was flying its flag at half-mast.
It’s (with an apostrophe) is a contraction meaning “it is.”
Correct: It’s [It is] getting dark.