D
DANGER NOTICE
DANGLING MODIFIERS
A modifier is a word or phrase that gives more detail about a subject. A dangling modifier modifies a word that is not clearly stated in a sentence.
Example: Having struggled through the long commute, Dan parked his car in his usual spot.
The doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In the example, Dan is the logical doer; therefore this sentence does not have a dangling modifier.
Example: Having struggled through the long commute, the car was parked in the usual spot.
“Having struggled” is a participle that expresses action, but the doer is not the parking spot. Because the doer of the action is not clearly stated, this participial phrase is a dangling modifier.
Characteristics of Dangling Modifiers
Dangling modifiers typically occur at the beginning of a sentence as an introductory clause or phrase. Dangling modifiers can also appear at the end of a sentence. Dangling modifiers often have a gerund (-ing word) or an infinitive (to + be word) near the beginning of the sentence.
Incorrect: Not having made contingency plans, the project was a failure.
Revising Dangling Modifiers
Name the doer of the action in a sentence as the subject of the main clause.
Dangling modifier: Having arrived late for the meeting, a recap of the first 30 minutes was needed.
Revision: Having arrived late for the meeting, the project manager needed a recap of the first 30 minutes.
Revise the dangling phrase into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer in that clause.
Dangling modifier: Without knowing the reason, it was impossible to order larger displays.
Revision: Because my manager did not know the reason, it was impossible to order larger displays.
Combine the introductory phrase and main clause into one.
Dangling modifier: To improve his sales, the advertising budget was increased.
Revision: His sales improved by increasing the advertising budget.
DANGLING PARTICIPLES
Dangling participles modify the noun or pronoun to which they refer (the referent). Because position determines the referent, how you construct the sentence determines the meaning.
Incorrect: Walking down Main Street, the art museum is visible.
This implies the art museum is walking down Main Street.
Correct: Walking down Main Street, you can see the art museum.
DASH
The dash is used to introduce an added thought.
Example: I shall go with you—you don’t mind, do you?
The dash also breaks the continuity of a thought as a digression.
Example: “The Scherzo Sonata” by Tolstoy is a sad story—but the writing is magnificent.
The dash is sometimes used before and after a parenthetical expression in place of commas.
Example: Henry Higgins—bareheaded and without a coat—left the house and ran down the road.
The dash can also be a super comma. When a sentence already contains a series separated by commas, a dash is a good tool for setting off a clause that might otherwise look like it is part of the series.
Example: The Mississippi River weaves through Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana—a state famous for its French culture—before emptying into the Gulf of Mexico.
When typing, the dash is indicated by two hyphens (--). There are two types of dashes: the en dash (–) and the em dash (—). The en dash is a little longer than a hyphen and is used for ranges of time and other numbers in place of a hyphen when combining open compounds.
Example: The years 2007–2009 were not good for investors.
The em dash is about the same width as the letter m and is used like a super comma to add emphasis or an abrupt change of thought.
Example: The conference was attended by the leaders of France, Germany, and Spain—a country that recently elected its president— all of whom were enthusiastically welcomed during the opening night ceremony.
You can add the en dash and em dash using the Insert/Symbol function on a word processor such as Microsoft Word.
DATA
Data is always plural. Datum is the singular form but is rarely used.
Incorrect: This data proves that our business is growing.
Correct: These data prove that our business is growing.
DATES
When writing a date, a comma is placed between the day and the year.
Example: September 16, 2012
There is no comma if the date is written in the European style.
Example: 16 September 2012
Dates can also be written using a slash or hyphen to separate the day, month, and year. When a slash or hyphen is used, numerals are used to represent the month.
Example: 9/16/2012 or 9-16-2012
Do not use slashes or hyphens when writing dates in formal business documents.
When including the day of the week, add a comma after the day.
Example: Monday, September 16, 2012
When just writing a month and year, do not add a comma between them.
Correct: September 2012
When abbreviating a decade, there are two options. Use no apostrophe between the number and the s.
Example: 1990s
Insert an apostrophe to show that something was left out.
Example: ’80s
Use the cardinal number when writing the days of the month without a year.
Incorrect: His birthday is March 26th [ordinal].
Correct: His birthday is March 26 [cardinal].
When writing a century as a noun, do not use a hyphen.
Example: The twentieth century gave birth to the television.
When writing a century as an adjective, use a hyphen.
Example: It was the nineteenth-century medical practices that caused so many battlefield deaths.
DEAF OR HARD OF HEARING
Use the entire phrase deaf or hard of hearing when referring to people who are deaf. Use deaf when space is limited. Hyphenate hard-of-hearing when it precedes a noun that it modifies.
Example: A man doing sign language stood on the side of the stage for the deaf or hard-of-hearing audience members.
DEAL
Deal should not be used informally to refer to a business agreement.
Incorrect: She made a deal to buy the house.
Correct: She made an agreement to buy the house.
DECIMALS
The decimal system is a number system based on 10 that allows us to write large or small numbers.
Numbers placed to the left of a decimal point are whole numbers.
Numbers placed to the right of a decimal point are fractions that are equal to less than one.
Figure 2.2 illustrates whole numbers and fractions.
Figure 2.2 Whole Numbers and Fractions
When writing decimals, you can write either the numerical form or the number in words.
Example: 0.3 or three-tenths
When writing a whole number and a fraction in words, add the word and to signal the location of the decimal.
Example: Two and three-tenths [written in numbers as 2.3]
When writing the numerical form of hundredths or thousandths, add zeros as place holders if there are no other numbers or if there is no whole number or decimal.
Example: 0.003 [written in words as three-thousandths]
A fraction can be written as a decimal.
Example: 0.5 [one-half]
Example: 0.25 [one-fourth]
Example: 0.333 [one-third]
Decimals can be written as a percentage. Move the decimal point two places to the right to translate a decimal into a percentage.
Example: 0.50 = 50 [fifty percent]
Example: 1.00 = 100 [one hundred percent]
DECLARATIVE MOOD
Mood as a verb refers to the attitude of the speaker. The declarative mood is the normal form of a verb used to convey information or make statements of fact. The declarative mood is used to indicate that something has happened or will happen.
DECLARATIVE SENTENCE
A declarative sentence is used to state facts or an argument. Declarative sentences do not require an answer or reaction from the reader.
Example: Mike plays the guitar.
Example: The weather is warm in Florida.
Declarative sentences are the most common type of sentence. Punctuate these sentences with a period.
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE
A defining relative clause modifies a noun or noun phrase and provides essential information that is required for a sentence to make sense.
Example: The bed and breakfast that we stayed in [defining relative clause] was really nice.
Defining relative clauses can begin with who, whose, and that for defining people and which, whose, and that for defining things.
DEFINITE ARTICLE
Nouns are preceded by words like the, a, or an. These words are called determiners. The determiner the is a definite article. A definite article restricts the meaning of a noun to refer to something already known by the reader from earlier sentences.
Example: A taxi pulled up next to Joe. He got into the taxi [the taxi that pulled up].
The is used before both singular and plural nouns.
Example: the dog, the dogs; the notebook, the notebooks; the pear, the pears
DEFUSE, DIFFUSE
You can defuse a bomb or dangerous situation by removing the trigger or the fuse.
Example: Mike defused the situation by moving Mary to another project.
To diffuse is to spread something.
Example: Rotten smells from the refrigerator diffused through the office air conditioning system.
DEGREE ADVERBS
Modifying adverbs like very and extremely are called degree adverbs because they specify the degree of another adjective or adverb. Other degree adverbs are almost, barely, highly, quite, slightly, totally, and utterly.
DEGREE TITLES
When writing about college degrees, use lowercase spelling.
Example: The university near my house, Kennesaw State University, does not offer a doctor of philosophy degree.
College degrees can be shortened for less formal writing.
Example: I received my bachelor’s from the University of Texas at Austin.
Capitalize the degree name when specifying a particular degree.
Example: I received a Bachelor of Science in Communications from the University of Texas at Austin.
Capitalize the abbreviations for degrees.
Example: B.A., M.A., Ph.D.
DEIXIS
Deixis refers to words or phrases that make sense only in the context of a particular sentence.
Example: Jeff’s presentation was scheduled to begin in ten minutes, and he [refers to Jeff] was feeling nervous about it [refers to the presentation].
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
Demonstrative adjectives are words like this, that, these, and those that tell whether a noun they modify is singular or plural and where the noun is located.
Example: I’ve been using this hammer.
Example: I climbed that mountain when I was twelve.
Example: These are the shoes I like best.
Example: I would like some of those flowers on my desk.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
Demonstrative pronouns are words like this, that, these, those, and such that can be used as either pronouns or as determiners.
As pronouns, the demonstrative pronouns identify a noun.
Example: That is marvelous! I will never forget this. Such is life.
As a determiner, the demonstrative adjectivally modifies a noun that follows. It is used to convey a sense of time and distance.
Example: These [strawberries that are in front of me] look delicious.
Example: Those [that are further away] look even better.
A sense of emotional distance can also be conveyed through the use of demonstrative pronouns. Pronouns used in this way receive special emphasis in a spoken sentence.
Example: You’re going to eat that?
When used as subjects, demonstrative pronouns can be used to refer to objects as well as persons.
Example: This is my partner. This is my book.
DENOMINAL ADJECTIVES
Denominal adjectives are words that act like adjectives but are actually nouns. Denominals are derived from nouns.
Example: I visited a stone fort.
Example: We watched the physics experiment.
Denominals include references to nationality.
Example: An Asian nurse helped my father in the hospital.
DENOTE, CONNOTE
DEPENDENT CLAUSES
A dependent clause cannot stand by itself like an independent clause. A dependent clause must be combined with an independent clause to make a sentence.
Dependent clauses can perform a variety of functions in a sentence. They can be noun clauses, adverb clauses, or adjective clauses.
Noun clauses can do anything a noun can do in a sentence.
Example: What he knows about boxing is not important to me.
Adverb clauses tell us about what is going on in the independent clause: where, when, or why.
Example: When the game is over, we’ll go get some burgers.
Adjective clauses function just like multiword adjectives to modify a noun.
Example: My wife, who is a video producer, has just completed an award-winning documentary about music.
DESCRIPTIVE WRITING
Descriptive writing is used to help the reader visualize the topic and to experience what the writer experienced. Descriptive writing uses language of interest to the five senses. It includes concrete details to describe people, places, things, and actions. Figurative language such as simile, metaphor, hyperbole, symbolism, and personification are often used in descriptive writing.
DESERT, DESSERT
To correctly use these words in your writing, consider their definitions.
A desert is dry barren landscape.
A dessert is a sweet food served at the end of a meal.
DETERMINERS
Articles, determiners, and quantifiers are little words that precede and modify nouns.
Example: the dog, a cat, those people, whatever purpose, either way, your choice
Sometimes these words tell you whether the subject is something specific or more general. Sometimes they tell you how much or how many.
The following is a list of determiner categories:
Articles—an, a, the
Determiners—articles and other limiters such as a, an, five, her, our, those, that, several, some
Possessive nouns—Kevin’s, the worker’s, my mother’s
Possessive pronouns—his, your, their, whose
Numbers—one, two, three, and so on
Demonstrative pronouns—this, that, these, those, such
Predeterminers occur prior to other determiners and include:
Multipliers—double, twice, two/three times, etc.
Fractional expressions—one-half, one-third, etc.
The words both, half, and all.
The intensifiers—quite, rather, and such.
Multipliers precede plural count and mass nouns and occur with single-count nouns describing an amount.
Example: This classroom holds three times the students as my old room.
Example: This time we added twice the amount of air in the tire.
Fractional expressions have a similar construction as multipliers and optionally include of.
Example: One-half of the voters favored lower taxes.
Intensifiers occur primarily in casual speech and are more common in British English than in American English.
Example: This food is rather bland, isn’t it?
Example: The voters made quite a fuss over the debate.
DEVICE, DEVISE
To correctly use these words in your writing, consider their definitions.
Device is noun that means a piece of equipment designed for a special purpose or a special technique or strategy.
Devise is a verb that means to think of a new idea.
DIACRITIC
A mark added to a letter that changes the pronunciation is a diacritic. Diacritics can appear above or below a letter. Diacritics are used for words that come from other languages.
Example: café, façade
DIFFERENT FROM, DIFFERENT THAN
Different from takes an object. Different than introduces a clause.
Incorrect: That coat is different than mine.
Correct: That coat is different from mine.
Correct: He was different than I remembered.
DIFFUSE, DEFUSE
DIMENSIONS
The symbols reserved for technical writing are a single prime (′) for feet, a double prime (″) for inches, and a multiplication sign (×) for by.
Example: 9′ × 12′ (9 feet by 12 feet)
Example: 8″ × 10″ (8 inches by 10 inches)
In regular prose text, write out the word by for ×.
Ciphers (zeros) can be used to indicate exact measurement if they improve clarity.
Example: 9′0″ × 12′0″ × 20′6″
Figure 2.3 shows how to interpret a ciphered measurement.
Figure 2.3 Interpretation of a Ciphered Measurement
DIRECT OBJECTS
In a sentence, the word or words that designate the person or thing receiving the action of a transitive verb is called the direct object.
Example: My brother wrecked the car [direct object].
DISABILITY
DISC, DISK
A compact disc is spelled with a c. Discs often are used for magnetic media that is reproduced using a laser.
A computer hard disk drive is spelled with a k.
DISCREET, DISCRETE
Discreet means showing discernment or good judgment in conduct or speech.
Example: You have to be discreet when talking politics around my parents.
Discrete means a separate or distant entity.
Example: The study separated people into two discrete groups.
DISEASE NAMES
Many diseases are named after their discoverer. The disease or syndrome part of the name is not capitalized.
The medical profession has recommended dropping the ’s from many disease names.
Example: Ménière syndrome, Bright disease, Asperger syndrome, Huntington disease, Lyme disease
Some disease names still retain the ’s.
Example: Lou Gehrig’s disease, Legionnaire’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease
DISJUNCTS
A disjunct is used to express the writer’s attitude toward something being described in a sentence.
Example: Happily [shows the writer’s attitude], I agreed to his marriage proposal.
DISPLAY, MONITOR, SCREEN
Use the term display when referring to the computer output device, such as a flat-panel display.
Monitor is an older technological term that is synonymous with display; however, it is no longer often used.
Use the term screen to refer to the graphics that can be seen on the display or to the actual surface where the graphics appear.
Display should not be used as an intransitive verb. Use appear instead.
Incorrect: After clicking the Print button, the Print dialog displays.
Correct: After clicking the Print button, the Print dialog appears.
Correct: The Print dialog displays a list of printers.
DISYLLABIC
A disyllabic word has two syllables.
DITRANSITIVE VERBS
A ditransitive verb can take both a direct object and an indirect object.
Example: She gave him [indirect object] the book [direct object].
DITTO MARKS
Ditto marks ([H11033]) mean the same as stated above or before, a repeat, or a duplicate. Ditto marks are often used in lists or tables, but they should not be used in formal business documents.
DO, DOES, DID
Do is used as an auxiliary verb to express negatives and to ask questions.
Example: I don’t drive.
Example: Do you drive?
Does is used for third-person singular subjects in the present tense.
Example: Does she drive?
Did is used for first person and third person in the past tense.
Example: Did you drive?
Do, does, and did can be used for short answers where the main verb has been omitted.
Example: [Do you drive?] I do.
Example: [Does she drive?] She does.
Example: [Did she drive?] She did.
For yes-or-no questions, the form of do is put in front of the subject, and the main verb comes after the subject.
Example: Did your mother drive?
Forms of do can be used to express similarities and differences along with so and neither.
Example: My mother drives and so does my father.
Example: My mother doesn’t like to drive; neither do I.
Do allows you to avoid having to repeat a verb.
Example: My mother drives as well as my father does.
Do can be used emphatically.
To add emphasis—She loves you. She really does!
To add emphasis to an imperative—Do sit down.
To add emphasis to a frequency adverb—He always does manage to get to work on time.
To contradict a negative statement—But, I didn’t say that.
To ask a clarifying question—Then who did say it?
To indicate a strong concession—Though he didn’t get a ticket this time, he did get a warning.
DOLLARS AND CENTS
It is best to use figures when writing about money.
Example: 1 cent or 1¢
Example: 20 cents or 20¢
Example: 20,000 dollars or $20,000
Amounts of money are always written out when beginning a sentence.
Incorrect: 1 cent was contributed by each child.
Correct: One cent was contributed by each child.
A series of prices is written in figures only.
Example: These shoes are priced at $50, $60, and $85.
Dollar and Cent Signs
Use the dollar sign before the number, not the word dollar or dollars after the number.
Example: The office space rents for $1,700 per month.
If a large number combines figures and words, use the dollar sign before the figure.
Incorrect: The budget calls for 850 billion dollars.
Correct: The budget calls for $850 billion.
Repeat the dollar sign with successive numbers.
Example: The bonds could be purchased in denominations of $10,000, $12,000, $15,000, and $20,000.
Exception: Omit all but the first dollar sign when numbers are in tabulated form.
Example: The bonds could be purchased in denominations of the following amounts:
$10,000
12,000
15,000
20,000
The dollar sign is not used when the figure given is in cents alone. Use the cent sign (¢) after amounts less than one dollar, but never use the cent sign with a decimal point.
Incorrect:. 25¢ [That would mean one-fourth of a cent.]
Correct: 25¢
Exception: The only time the dollar sign is used when the figure is in cents alone is in statistical work when the part of the dollar is carried out to more than two decimal places.
Example: $0.3564
Decimal Points
Decimal points are another way of writing fractions, especially large fractions. When a decimal occurs with no unit before it, use a cipher (zero) for quick interpretation.
Example: a 0.75-yard measurement, rainfall of 0.356 inch
Sometimes the fraction is part of a dollar. When the amount of dollars given is not followed by cents, omit the decimal point and the ciphers.
Example: $3, $1,200, $17.75
The decimal point and ciphers are not used with even amounts of money unless in tabulated form. If tabulated and if some amounts contain cents and some do not, the even amounts should contain ciphers.
DON’T, DOESN’T
Don’t means do not; doesn’t means does not.
Incorrect: He don’t care to go with us.
Correct: He doesn’t care to go with us.
DO’S AND DON’TS
Pay attention to the placement of apostrophes when writing the phrase do’s and don’ts.
Incorrect: do’s and don’t’s
Correct: do’s and don’ts
DOT-COM
Dot-com refers to a Web-based business. Use dot-com as an adjective, not as a noun or verb. Hyphenate dot-com. When using it in titles or headings, do not capitalize the letter following the hyphen.
Incorrect: The programmers worked in the garage with hopes of one day starting their own dot-com.
Correct: Last year those dot-com stocks were really inexpensive.
DOUBLE NEGATIVES
Double negatives occur when you use more than one negative word or phrase to express a single negative thought. Double negatives should not be used.
Incorrect: He doesn’t never want to work here again.
Correct: He doesn’t ever want to work here again.
Words like hardly, barely, and scarcely are negative in effect and can lead to double negatives.
Incorrect: She hardly never reads the newspaper.
Correct: She hardly reads the newspaper.
Use of the contraction not (n’t) is negative in effect.
Incorrect: She doesn’t offer no reasons for being late.
Correct: She doesn’t offer any reasons for being late.
DOUBLE POSSESSIVES
A double possessive is two or more consecutive nouns in the possessive case. All nouns in the series carry apostrophes.
Example: I visited the tombs under St. Peter’s Cathedral’s main floor.
DOUBLE-CLICK
When writing software instructions, hyphenate double-click to describe mouse commands. Hyphenate right-mouse click to describe that type of mouse command.
DOWNLOAD, UPLOAD
To download is to transfer files to a computer from a network, the Internet, or storage device.
To upload is to transfer files from your computer to a network, storage device, the Internet, or another computer.
DOWNTONERS
Downtoners are adverbs that are used to tone down a verb. Common down-toner adverbs are kind of, sort of, mildly, to some extent, almost, and all but.
Example: The church was all but destroyed by the fire.
Example: She almost resigned after the demotion.
Example: We can improve morale to some extent.
Example: She mildly disapproved of his drinking.
Example: Mike sort of felt betrayed by his boss.
Example: I kind of like this job.
DRAG-AND-DROP
Drag-and-drop is a term used to describe a software editing process in which a mouse user moves text or objects from one place on the screen to another.
Use drag-and-drop in business and technical documents only as an adjective. Do not use drag-and-drop as a noun or verb.
Incorrect: To move the files to your flash drive, open the flash drive and drag-and-drop [used as a verb] the files you want into the folder.
Correct: It is easy to move the paragraph using a drag-and-drop [used as an adjective] procedure.
Correct: To moves the files to your flash drive, open the flash drive and use a drag-and-drop [used as an adjective] operation to move the files.
DUE TO THE FACT THAT
This phrase should be avoided; use the word because instead.
DVD
DYNAMIC ADJECTIVES
Dynamic adjectives are used to describe attributes that are under the control of the person, place, or thing that possesses them.
Typical dynamic adjectives are calm, careful, cruel, disruptive, foolish, friendly, good, impatient, mannerly, patient, rude, shy, suspicious, tidy, vacuous, and vain.
Dynamic adjectives can be used in imperative sentences.
Example: Don’t be foolish!
Example: Be patient.
DYNAMIC VERBS
Dynamic verbs are used to show continued or progressive action. Dynamic verbs are used to describe an action that occurs over time and that may or may not have a specific endpoint or may not yet have occurred.
Example: He’s lying on the sofa.
Dynamic verbs are also known as action verbs. Dynamic verbs often are used in the continuous be + ing forms.
Example: The sun is melting the snowman.