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PAGE BREAKS
Page breaks can be manually inserted into a document; however, they should not be added until all illustrations have been added and the document is ready for final delivery. When determining page breaks, consider the following tips:
The goal is to keep related content together on the same page.
New paragraphs that start at the bottom of a page should have at least two lines of text; otherwise they should be moved to the next page.
A bulleted list that starts at the bottom of a page should have the leadin sentence and at least two items in the list; otherwise it should be moved to the next page.
Avoid page breaks in the following situations:
In the middle of a note, tip, caution, or warning message
In the middle of a table
In long tables (if they must spread over several pages, repeat the table title and heading when pages break from right to left)
When separating content from any illustrations
PAGE NUMBERING
For all page numbering, use figures to show the numbers. Commas are not used in page numbers greater than 999.
Page Number Formats
On legal documents, a page number is centered at the bottom of each page; on other papers, it is usually shown at the top.
Manuscripts and briefs are numbered in the upper right corner; papers that are to be bound at the left are numbered in the lower right corner. In each case, all numbers should appear at exactly the same place on all pages in a document.
Title pages are not numbered. A first page of a work or of a chapter is not marked with a number, although the numbering of the following pages takes into consideration the number of the first page.
It is acceptable to use a hyphen before and after the page number (-3-) without a period.
Never use quotation marks around a page number, and never type the word page before the number.
PALINDROMES
Words or phrases that are spelled the same forward or backward are palindromes.
Example: madam, mom, level
PARAGRAPHS
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that focus on a single topic. When writing paragraphs, consider the following tips:
Keep the paragraph confined to one idea.
Focus all sentences on the single idea or provide supporting evidence or details regarding it.
If the single points in a paragraph get too long, break them up into separate paragraphs.
Elements of a Paragraph
A well-written paragraph includes the following elements:
Unity—The entire paragraph should have a single focus. If it begins with one focus, it should not end with another.
Coherence—The paragraph should be easily understandable to the reader.
Logical bridges—Carry the same topic from sentence to sentence. Construct successive sentences in a parallel form.
Topic sentence—One sentence in the paragraph should indicate the focus of the paragraph. (A topic sentence can be anywhere in the paragraph.)
Verbal bridges—Create coherence using verbal bridges.
Key words can be repeated in several sentences in the paragraph.
Synonymous words can be repeated in different sentences.
Pronouns can refer to nouns used in previous sentences.
Transitional words can be used to link ideas from previous sentences.
Paragraph Development
When writing a paragraph, consider the following tips:
Introduce the topic using the topic sentence.
Beware of paragraphs that have only two or three sentences.
To develop a paragraph, do the following:
Use examples and illustrations.
Provide details, statistics, and evidence.
Provide quotes and paraphrases from other people.
Tell a story.
Define terms used in the paragraph.
Compare and contrast ideas.
Evaluate causes.
Examine the effects.
Offer a chronological summary.
When to Start a New Paragraph
You should start a new paragraph in the following situations:
When you begin a new idea
To contrast, debate, or point out the differences between ideas
When readers need a pause
When ending an introduction or starting the conclusion
Paragraph Transitions
Sentences that outline what a document has covered and where the rest of the document is going are called signposts or transitions. Transitional sentences lead from one idea to the next. They are often used at the end of a paragraph to help one paragraph flow into the next.
PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION
Parallel construction is a stylistic technique for organizing expressions of similar content to improve readability. This technique involves the removal of repetitive words and combining similar sentences and ideas.
Nonparallel example: John talked with Mike. John talked with Mary. John talked with Leon.
Parallel example: John talked with Mike, Mary, and Leon.
Parallel construction also applies to things such as headings and bulleted lists. Headings should be a consistent part of speech or type of clause. List items should begin with the same part of speech or tense.
PARAPHRASING
Paraphrasing is your own version of someone else’s ideas and information. Paraphrasing allows you to use research and other resources without plagiarizing (as long as sources are cited in the document). Paraphrasing allows you to avoid quoting and gives you control over the writing style of your document.
To effectively paraphrase, do the following:
Read and reread the original content until you fully understand it.
Take notes.
Set aside the original and write your paraphrased version.
Compare your version to the original to make sure your version accurately expresses the idea or information.
Use quotation marks to identify anything you have quoted verbatim from the original.
Include the source in your notes to cite in your final document.
PARENTHESES
Parentheses are used to enclose matter that is introduced by way of explanation.
Example: If the lessor (the person owning the property) agrees, the lessee (the person renting the property) may have a dog on the premises.
Parentheses are used to enclose figures that enumerate items.
Example: The book contained chapters on (1) capitalization, (2) spelling rules, (3) troublesome verbs, and (4) punctuation.
Parentheses are also used to enclose citations of authority.
Example: The definition of action is “the process or state of being active” (American College Dictionary).
Parentheses are used to enclose figures repeated for clarity, as in legal documents:
Example: He was willed five thousand dollars ($5,000) by his uncle.
Example: You will be paid twenty (20) percent interest.
PARENTHETICAL ELEMENTS
Nonessential information that is added to a sentence is called a parenthetical element. A parenthetical element is usually set apart from the main text by a comma or a pair of commas.
Example: The Lake Texoma bridge, which connects Durant to Kingston [parenthetical element], was originally designed by my grandfather.
PARTICIPLE
A participle is a verb that acts like an adjective.
Example: The running dog chased the speeding [participles] car.
A present participle describes a present condition, while a past participle describes something that has already happened.
Example: Moses saw the burning [present participle] bush.
Example: The burned [past participle] tree fell down in the storm.
PARTICIPIAL PHRASE
Present participles (verbals ending in -ing), past participles (verbals ending in -ed), or other irregular verbs can be combined with complements and modifiers to create a participial phrase. Participial phrases always act as adjectives. When they begin a sentence, they are set apart by a comma just like an introductory modifier. If they appear within the sentence, they are set apart with a pair of commas.
Example: Working around the clock [participial phrase], the workers repaired the airport runway in less than a week. The concrete, having been damaged by the crash landing of the airliner, needed to be replaced.
PARTS OF SPEECH
The eight parts of speech are:
Nouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
Pronouns
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections or determiners
PARTY
Party can be used to refer to a person in legal documents, but the word is too formal for common use. A party can also be a celebration.
Incorrect: The party I called was disturbed.
Correct: The person I called was disturbed.
Correct (in legal documents): The party of the second part hereby agrees …
Correct: He celebrated his birthday with a party.
PASSED, PAST
When referring to a period of time or distance, use past.
Example: We’ve always had good luck on these types of projects in the past.
When referring to movement, use passed.
Example: ABC just passed us to become number one in our market.
PASSIVE VOICE
Verbs can be either active or passive in voice. In the active voice, the subject is the do-er or be-er, and the verb describes an action. See Active Voice.
Example: The student used the computer.
In the passive voice, the subject is not a do-er or be-er. Instead, the subject is being acted on by something else.
Example: The computer was used by the student.
The passive voice has its uses. When it is more important to draw attention to the person or thing that was acted on, the passive voice can be used.
Example: Several quality control errors were made last month by the third shift.
The passive voice is also appropriate when the subject is not important.
Example: The football tickets can be picked up at the Will Call window.
The passive voice is sometimes required for technical writing, where the doer or be-er can be anyone, and the process being described is more important.
Example of when the subject is not important: We developed a hard drive that can store several terabytes of data.
Example of emphasis on the process: A hard drive has been developed that can store several terabytes of data.
The passive voice is created by combining a form of the to be verb with the past participle of the main verb. Only transitive verbs (those that have objects) can be transformed into the passive voice. Some transitive verbs cannot be transformed into passive voice, such as to have.
Example in active voice: She has a new computer.
Example in passive voice: A new computer is had by her.
Other verbs that cannot be used with the passive voice are resemble, look like, equal, agree with, mean, contain, hold, comprise, lack, suit, fit, and become.
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE
Past perfect progressive or past perfect continuous is used to describe events that were not finished when another event occurred. It is formed using have been + -ing.
Example: In November, I’ll have been living [past perfect progressive] here for twenty-two years.
PAST PERFECT TENSE
The past perfect tense is used to describe events that happened before another event or time period. Past perfect tense is formed using the verb had plus the past participle.
Example: After he was hired, we had hoped [past perfect] he would be a great leader.
An old term for past perfect tense is pluperfect.
PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE
Past progressive is used to describe events that were happening at some point in the past. Past progressive is used to indicate that something took place while something else was happening. It is formed using the past simple tense of to be + -ing.
Example: I was eating [past progressive] dinner, when the telemarketer called.
PAST SIMPLE TENSE
Past simple tense is used to describe events that occurred in the past. Past simple tense is formed by adding -ed to the base form of regular verbs or -d if the verb already ends in e.
Example: I liked the play.
Example: I walked around the neighborhood this morning.
Irregular verbs change form to make past simple tense.
Example: I ate dinner after returning last evening.
PEOPLE
People refers to a large group of individuals. When referring to people of a particular organization or place, it’s better to use people before the name.
Incorrect: The General Motors people.
Correct: the people of General Motors, the people of Massachusetts
PER
Avoid using per and instead use according to.
Incorrect: The report was created per the manager’s instructions.
Correct: The report was created according to the manager’s instructions.
PERCENT
This is one word following an amount, never per cent.
Correct: Six percent interest was charged.
PERCENTAGE
Consider the following rules when using percentage or percentage signs in your writing:
Use percentage when no amount is given.
Example: What percentage of interest was charged.
The numeral is retained whether or not a percentage sign is used.
Example: 5% price reduction
Example: loss of 10 percent.
Example: almost 30 percent of the population.
For percentages in succession, use the sign after each numeral.
Example: 30% to 50%; 6%, 8%, and 10.
PERFECT ASPECT
The perfect aspect tense is used to describe completed events that are currently relevant or were relevant at a specific time. It is formed using the verb to have plus the past participle.
Example: He has worked on my team for sixteen years.
PERFECT INFINITIVE
PERFECT TENSE
Perfect tense is a category of tenses that includes:
Past perfect—had + past participle.
Present perfect—have + past participle.
Future perfect—will have + past participle.
Conditional perfect—would have + past participle.
PERIOD
A period is used at the end of a declarative sentence to denote a full pause:
Example: I am going to town. You may go with me if you wish.
Use a period, not a question mark, when the sentence contains an indirect question.
Example: He could not understand why she was leaving.
Also use a period for a request phrased as a question.
Example: Will you please return the diskette when you are finished.
The period is used in decimals to separate a whole number from a decimal fraction.
Example: 5.6 percent, $19.5
A period is also used in abbreviations.
Example: Mrs., Ph.D., etc.
PERSON
Person involves the use of pronouns used as subjects of a sentence or clause. Categories of person include:
First person singular—The subject is the writer or speaker.
First person plural—The writer is part of a group that is the subject.
Second person singular—The subject is the reader or listener.
Second person plural—The audience is the subject.
Third person singular—Someone else, a third person, is the subject.
Third personal plural—The subject is a group that does not include the writer or the reader.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Personal pronouns change form, or case, according to their use in a sentence. Consider the following guidelines:
The pronoun I is used as the subject of a sentence.
Example: I am tall.
The pronoun me is used as an object in various ways.
Example: He gave me a bonus.
The pronoun my is used for the possessive form.
Example: That’s my password.
The same is true for other personal pronouns: the singular you and he/she/it and the plurals we, you, and they.
Table 2.21 shows the various cases for pronouns.
When a personal pronoun is connected by a conjunction to another noun or pronoun, it does not change case.
Example: I am taking a course in PowerPoint. John and I are taking a course in PowerPoint. (Note in the second sentence that John is listed before I?
The same is true when the object form is used.
Example: The instructor gave the PowerPoint User Guide to me. The instructor gave the PowerPoint User Guide to John and me.
When a pronoun and a noun are combined, you must choose the case of the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were not there.
Example: We teachers are demanding a raise.
With the second person, there’s not as much confusion because the pronoun you is the same for both subject and object form.
Example: You teachers are demanding too much money.
Among the possessive pronoun forms are nominative possessives such as mine, yours, ours, and theirs.
Example: This new house is mine. Look at those houses. Theirs needs work. Ours is in good shape. Mine is newer than yours.
PERSONIFICATION
Giving human feelings and characteristics to nonliving things is a figure of speech called personification.
Example: My computer hates me.
PERSUADE, CONVINCE
PHASE, FAZE
PHATIC SPEECH
Phatic speech involves words or phrases that are used in social settings to be polite rather than to be taken literally. Phatic speech is conversational informal speech.
Example: How are you doing? Fine, how are you? Thank you. You’re welcome.
PHRASAL VERBS
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb along with another word or phrase. The word that is joined with the verb is a particle.
Phrasal verbs often include a preposition and are used for casual and conversational phrases.
Example: The carpenters were sitting around eating lunch.
Example: He looked up his old customers in the database.
Phrasal verbs are often unclear. Avoid using them in business writing.
PHRASES
Phrases are groups of words that do not include a subject and verb. A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and verb. The types of phrases are:
Noun phrases—a noun and its modifiers
Example: He ran briskly down the zigzagging path.
Prepositional phrase—a preposition, a noun or pronoun, and sometimes an adjective
Example: On this side of the street, there are no sidewalks.
Appositive phrase—renaming a preceding word
Example: My favorite football player, a Heisman Trophy winner and number one draft pick, played in three Super Bowl games.
Absolute phrase—a noun or pronoun, a participle, and modifiers
Example: Their backpacks bulging with supplies, the students waited at the bus stop on the first day of school.
Infinitive phrase—an infinitive and any modifiers or complements
Example: His plan to write a little each day resulted in a finished manuscript by the end of November.
Gerund phrase—verbals that end in -ing that act like nouns along with modifiers or complements
Example: Mike enjoyed playing the guitar in the echoing hallway.
Participial phrase—verbals combined with complements and modifiers that act as adjectives
Example: The house, vacant since late last year, is now slowly falling apart.
PHRASES AND WORDS TO OMIT
Table 2.22 presents a list of words that are usually not necessary in a sentence.
PIDGIN
Pidgin is a type of simple language that develops when people who do not speak the same language are required to communicate in order to live or work together.
PLAGIARISM
The use of written or spoken material including paragraphs, sentences, artwork, or research statistics without providing credit is called plagiarism.
Plagiarism can be avoided by paraphrasing and rewriting and by providing credit in the form of sources or acknowledgments.
Sources for quotes, facts, or research can be cited immediately after a borrowed statement or idea.
Example: See Documenting Sources in Section 1: The Writing Process.
PLEONASM
Using more words than are really necessary or using redundant words or phrases is a stylistic problem called pleonasm. Pleonasm weakens a document and is distracting to readers.
PLUPERFECT
PLURALS
The general rule is to form the plural of a noun by adding s.
Example: book, books; clock, clocks; pen, pen.
A noun ending in o preceded by a vowel takes an s for the plural.
Example: curio, curios; folio, folios; radio, radios; ratio, ratios; studio, studio.
Some nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, take es to form the plural, whereas others take s.
Example: banjo, banjos; buffalo, buffaloes; cargo, cargoes; Eskimo, Eskimos; hero, heroes; mosquito, mosquitoes; motto, mottoes; piano, pianos; potato, potatoes; soprano, sopranos; tomato, tomatoes.
A singular noun ending in ch, sh, s, x, or z takes es for the plural.
Example: bush, bushes; chintz, chintzes; dress, dresses; inch, inches; wax, waxes.
For a noun ending in y preceded by a consonant, the y changes to i and es is added for the plural.
Example: ability, abilities; auxiliary, auxiliaries; discrepancy, discrepancies; facility, facilities; industry, industries; lady, ladies; society, societies
A noun ending in y preceded by a vowel takes only an s for the plural.
Example: attorney, attorneys; galley, galleys; kidney, kidneys; monkey, monkeys; turkey, turkey
Some plurals end in en.
Example: child, children; man, men; ox, oxen.
For some nouns ending in f or fe, change the f or fe to v and add es for the plural.
Example: calf, calves; knife, knives; leaf, leaves; life, lives; loaf, loaves; shelf, shelve.
There are some exceptions.
Example: bailiff, bailiffs; belief, beliefs; chief, chiefs; gulf, gulfs; roof, roofs
Some nouns require a vowel change for the plural.
Example: foot, feet; goose, geese; mouse, mice; tooth, teeth.
The plurals of numerals, signs, and letters are shown by adding an s (or ’s to avoid confusion).
Example: one B, four B’.
For proper names ending in s or in an s sound, add es for the plural.
Example: Brooks, the Brookses; Burns, the Burnses; Jones, the Jonese.
A compound noun, when hyphenated or when consisting of two separate words, forms the plural form in the most important element.
Example: attorney-general, attorneys-general; brigadier general, brigadier generals; brother-in-law, brothers-in-law; notary public, notaries public; passer-by, passersby.
The plural of solid compounds (a compound noun written as one word) is formed at the end of the solid compound.
Example: bookshelf, bookshelves; cupful, cupfuls; lumberman, lumbermen; stepchild, stepchildren; stepdaughter, stepdaughters
Some nouns have the same form for singular and plural.
Example: Chinese, corps, deer, salmon, sheep, vermin, wheat
Some nouns are always treated as singular.
Example: civics, mathematics, measles, milk, molasses, music, news, statistic.
Some nouns are always treated as plural.
Example: pants, proceeds, remains, riches, scissors, thanks, trousers, tweezers.
PLURALS OF NUMBERS
Form the plural of a numeral or other character by adding s or es to the word. If the number is a figure, use s or es depending on office policy.
Example: 5s and 6s or 5’s and 6’s or fives and sixes; the 1890s or the 1890’s; MD88s OR MD88’s
PLUS
Avoid using plus as a conjunction. Instead use and.
Incorrect: We finished the market research on schedule, plus we discovered some new opportunities in the process.
Correct: We finished the market research on schedule, and we discovered some new opportunities in the process.
P.M.
POINT IN TIME
Avoid this term in your writing and instead use at this time, at this point, or now.
Incorrect: At this point in time, everything seems to be working smoothly on the assembly line.
Correct: At this time, everything seems to be working smoothly on the assembly line.
POLYPTOTON
A polyptoton is a figure of speech that occurs when two words from the same root word are repeated. Polyptotons are used for stylistic emphasis.
Example: “Not as a call to battle, though embattled we are.” —John F. Kennedy
POLYSEME
A word with at least two related meanings is a polyseme.
Example: milk [the noun milk and the verb to milk], bank [the noun bank and the verb to bank]
POLYSYLLABIC
A word with three or more syllables is polysyllabic.
Example: January, wonderful, important.
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Possessive adjectives are words that are used before nouns to show ownership of the noun.
Example: his, her, its, my, our, their, your.
Example: That’s his motorcycle.
POSSESSIVE CASE
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Possessive pronouns are words that are used in place of a noun to show ownership.
Example: his, hers, its, mine, ours, theirs, your.
Example: Which one is your car? That one is mine.
POSSESSIVES
Consider the following guidelines when creating possessive forms:
Add ’s to a singular noun to show possession. This rule applies also to nouns that end in s.
Example: Mike’s car, a day’s wage, Charles’s plan.
Add an apostrophe to the end of a pluralized family name to show possession.
Example: the Smiths’ house.
To show possession for inanimate objects, it may be best to rewrite.
Example: “The house’s doors” might be rewritten as “the doors of the house.”
For compound nouns, apostrophe placement determines which nouns show possession.
Example: Jeff’s and Cathy’s dogs are in the backyard. [Each person has at least one dog..
Example: Jeff and Cathy’s dogs are in the backyard. [Jeff and Cathy share ownership of the dogs.]
For a sentence where an appositive follows a possessive noun and renames or explains the noun, add the apostrophe to the appositive instead of the noun.
Example: We need to get Dr. Early, the family doctor’s advice.
POSTED, INFORMED
Don’t use posted in place of informed.
Incorrect: You are well posted on the subject.
Correct: You are well informed about Australia.
POSTMODIFER
A modifier that appears in a sentence after the word it modifies is called a postmodifier.
Example: She was the girl selected [postmodifier] for the study.
PRECEDE, PROCEED
To go before someone or something else is to precede.
Example: The girls preceded the boys in the line of march.
To go forward is to proceed.
Example: We proceeded toward the treeline.
PREDETERMINERS
Predeterminers are words that appear before other determiners in a sentence. There are three types of predeterminers:
Multipliers—double, three times, twice
Example: Now that I’m self-employed, I’m making twice [multiplier] the income.
Fractional expressions—half, one-third, three-quarters
Example: Two-thirds [multiplier] of the class were recent immigrants to the United States.
Intensifiers—quite, rather, such
Example: His college apartment was quite [multiplier] a dump.
PREDICATES
Predicates are used to complete a sentence. The subject names the person, place, or thing that is doing something. A simple predicate consists of a verb, verb string, or a compound verb.
Example: The flower bloomed [predicate]. The flowers have been blooming.
A compound predicate consists of two or more predicates connected.
Example: The mountain biker began to ride down the trail and eventually entered one of the most beautiful valleys in the area.
A complete predicate consists of a transitive verb and all modifiers and other words that complete its meaning.
Example: The slowly moving thunderstorm flashed lightning across the dark foreboding sky.
A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and describes the subject of the sentence.
Example: The minerals in the water taste bad.
A predicate nominative follows a linking verb and describes what the subject is.
Example: Linda Wauson is president of the firm.
PREFACE
A preface is an introduction to a book written by the author to:
Acknowledge help and assistance provided.
Explain how the project was started and the origin of the idea for the book.
A prologue is similar to a preface, except that it introduces the book and is written in the voice of the book’s text, rather than the author’s first-person voice.
PREFIXES
Prefixes are letters that are added before a word that modify the meaning. Some prefixes show a change in quantity from the original word.
Example: semiannual, kilometer, millimeter, bimonthly.
Some prefixes show negation or the opposite of the original meaning of the word.
Example: illegal, invalid, misjudge, counterclockwise.
Some prefixes show a change in time.
Example: postwar, preschool.
Some prefixes show a change in direction or position.
Example: circumnavigate, recede, infrastructure.
PREMODIFIER
A modifier that is placed before the word it modifies is called a premodifier.
Example: That’s a big [premodifier] report.
Premodifiers help define and describe the words they modify. The most common premodifiers are adjectives; however, nouns can also serve in this function.
Example: He responded to an angry [adjective] caller.
Example: He was a right-wing [noun] radio talk show host.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, a noun or pronoun that serves as the object of the preposition, and an adjective or two that modifies the object.
Prepositional phrases usually tell us when or where something is happening.
Example: in a half hour, at the community center.
A prepositional phrase used at the beginning of a sentence is called an introductory modifier. You can set apart an introductory modifier with a comma; however, the comma is optional unless the introductory modifier is long.
PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are used to describe relationships between other words in a sentence. Prepositions like in, on, or between are good examples because they describe the spatial nature of things.
Prepositions are almost always combined with other words to become prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition and a determiner, along with an adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun that is called the “object of the preposition.”
Prepositions can be divided into types:
Prepositions of time
Prepositions of place
Prepositions of location
Prepositions of movement
Prepositions of Time: At, On, In, For, and Since
At, on, and in often serve as prepositions of time. We use at to designate specific times.
Example: Meet me at five o’clock.
We use on to designate days and dates.
Example: I work all day on Saturdays.
We use in for nonspecific times.
Example: He likes to read in the evening.
The preposition for is used to measure time.
Example: He worked for twenty years.
The preposition since is used with a specific date or time.
Example: I have known him since January 2003.
Prepositions of Place: At, On, In
At, on, and in can also serve as prepositions of place. We use at for specific addresses.
Example: I live at 5203 Legendary Lane.
We use on to designate streets.
Example: I live on Legendary Lane.
We use in for the names of towns, states, and countries.
Example: I live in Acworth.
Prepositions of Location: At, On, In
At, on, and in can be used as prepositions of location. Their usage is specific to certain places.
Example: at class, at home, at the library, at the office, at school, at work.
Example: on the bed, on the ceiling, on the floor, on the horse, on the plane, on the trail.
Example: in the bed, in the bedroom, in the car, in the class, in the library, in the room, in the school.
Prepositions of Movement: To, Toward
The preposition to is used to express movement to a place.
Example: I am driving to work.
Toward and towards are also used to express movement. They are both the same word with a spelling variation. Avoid using towards in business writing, since its usage is out of date.
Example: We were working toward a common goal.
Combinations
Some prepositions are so commonly used with particular nouns, adjectives, and verbs that they have almost become one word.
The following is a list of noun-and-preposition combinations:
approval of
awareness of
belief in
concern for
confusion about
desire for
fondness for
grasp of
hatred of
hope for
interest in
love of
need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding of
The following is a list of adjective-and-preposition combinations:
afraid of
angry at
aware of
capable of
careless about
familiar with
fond of
happy about
interested in
jealous of
made of
married to
proud of
similar to
sorry for
sure of
tired of
worried about A combination of a verb and a preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined with the verb is called a particle. The following is a list of verb-and-preposition combinations:
apologize for
ask about
ask for
belong to
bring up
care for
find out
give up
grow up
look for
look forward to
look up
make up
pay for
prepare for
study for
talk about
think about
trust in
work for
worry about
PRESENT INFINITIVE
See Infinitives.
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
The present participle is a form of the verb to be that indicates ongoing action.
Example: I am eating [present participle].
Example: I am talking.
A present participle can also serve as an adjective in a sentence to modify a noun.
Example: She is an amazing person.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
The present perfect tense is used for unfinished past actions, for actions where no time is specified, or when a past action is important now. It is formed by using the verb have + past participle.
Example: I have lived [present perfect] here for twenty years.
Example: Have you seen that new movie.
Example: I’ve overslept and missed my meeting.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE
The present progressive tense is used to describe how long something occurred in the past or for activities that started in the past and are still happening now. It is formed using the verbs have + been + present participle.
Example: I have been waiting [present progressive] here for you.
PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE
The present simple tense is used to state facts or for regular repeated actions.
Example: I like [present simple] chocolate.
Example: I go to the factory at six.
PRESS, TYPE, CLICK, STRIKE, HIT, SELECT
When writing instructions for computer and software usage, use the following guidelines to describe keyboard actions:
Press—when a keyboard key interaction is needed to perform a particular function
Example: Press Y to continue.
Do not use depress, strike, hit, or type for these types of keyboard interactions.
Use—for navigation purposes with an arrow key or when multiple keys are pressed at the same time to initiate a command
Example: Use the arrow keys to move up or down in the document.
Type—when a user enters information that appears on the screen
Example: Type your user ID.
Click—when using the mouse to make a selection
Example: Click the File menu.
Select—when marking or highlighting text in a document, when adding checks to checkboxes, or when picking an item from a list
Example: Select the desired text, then click Copy.
Example: From the list of values, select your choice.
PREVIOUS
Avoid using previous as in “our previous discussion.” Instead use earlier.
Incorrect: In our previous discussion, you mentioned you might be interested in ordering a new delivery truck.
Correct: Earlier, you mentioned you might be interested in ordering a new delivery truck.
PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE
Principal can be the person—someone who runs a school or an important person such as the owner of a business—or it can be the amount borrowed in a loan.
Example: The principal actors had their own private trailers on the movie set.
Principle is a code of conduct usually involving law or a doctrine.
Example: The conversation was about the principle of subsidiarity.
PROBLEM PRONOUNS
Pronouns in the nominative case—I, we, he, she, they—serve as subjects of verbs but never as objects of verbs or prepositions.
You can often tell that the case is wrong because the sentence sounds odd; however, when compound subjects or compound objects are used, it may be difficult to “hear” the correct case.
To test such an instance, drop the other subject or object and repeat the sentence with only the pronoun in question.
I: Nominative Case, Never an Object
Incorrect: This is just between you and I.
Correct: This is just between you and me.
Incorrect: He asked that the money be given to you and I.
Test: He asked that the money be given to I.
Correct: He asked that the money be given to you and me.
Test: He asked that the money be given to me.
She, He: Nominative Case, Never an Object
Incorrect: If you stay there, the ball will hit you and she.
Test: If you stay there, the ball will hit she.
Correct: If you stay there, the ball will hit you and her.
Test: If you stay there, the ball will hit her.
They: Nominative Case, Never an Object
Incorrect: I will give the money to you and they.
Test: I will give the money to they.
Correct: I will give the money to you and them.
Test: I will give the money to them.
Incorrect: You and them are welcome to come.
Test: Them are welcome to come.
Correct: You and they are welcome to come.
Test: They are welcome to come.
We: Nominative Case, Never an Object
Incorrect: Us boys are ready to play the game.
Test: Us are ready to play the game.
Correct: We boys are ready to play the game.
Test: We are ready to play the game.
Me, Us, Her, Him, Them: Objective Case, Never a Subject
Pronouns in the objective case—me, us, her, him, them—are always used as objects of either verbs or prepositions, never as subjects.
With a compound object, use the same way of testing, changing the number of the verb as needed.
Incorrect: Jim and me went to the movies.
Test: Me went to the movies.
Correct: Jim and I went to the movies.
Test: I went to the movies.
Better: Jim went to the movies with me.
Incorrect: Julie and us sat on the top bleacher.
Test: Us sat on the top bleacher.
Correct: Julie and we sat on the top bleacher.
Test: We sat on the top bleacher.
Better: Julie sat on the top bleacher with us.
Incorrect: Tommy and her [him, us, them] argued every day.
Test: Her [him, us, them] argued every day.
Correct: Tommy and she [he, we, they] argued every day.
PROCEED, PRECEDE
PROGRESSIVE VERBS
Progressive verbs, which indicate something that is being or happening, are formed by the present participle form (ending in -ing) and an auxiliary.
Example: She is [auxiliary] crying [present participle]. She was crying. She will be crying. She has been crying. She had been crying. She will have been crying.
The progressive form occurs only with dynamic verbs (verbs that show the ability to change). There are five types of dynamic verbs:
Activity verbs
Example: ask, play, work, write, say, listen, call, ea.
Process verbs
Example: change, grow, mature, wide.
Verbs of bodily sensation
Example: hurt, itch, ache, fee.
Transitional events verbs
Example: arrive, die, land, leave, loss.
Example: hit, jump, throw, kick.
Stative verbs describe a quality that is incapable of change. There are two classifications of stative verbs:
Verbs of inert perception and cognition
Example: guess, hate, hear, please, satisfy.
Relational verbs
Example: equal, possess, own, include, cost, concern, contain.
PRONOUNS
Usually pronouns refer to a noun, an individual or group, or a thing whose identity has been made clear previously.
The word a pronoun substitutes for is called its antecedent.
Example: Amanda accepted Nick’s proposal. She [Amanda, the antecedent for “she” and “her”] knew he [Nick, the antecedent] was the right guy for her [Amanda].
Not all pronouns refer to an antecedent.
Example: Everyone [no antecedent] on this floor charges over one hundred dollars an hour.
The types of pronouns are:
Personal—you, him, it, us, them.
Demonstrative—this, that, these, those.
Indefinite—all, any, anybody, anyone, everyone.
Relative—whoever, whomever, whichever.
Reflexive—myself, yourself, herself.
Intensive—they themselves, I myself, the president himself.
Interrogative—who, whom, which, what.
Reciprocal—each other, one another.
Pronouns and Antecedent Agreement
A pronoun usually refers to its antecedent and the two words must agree in number. If the antecedent is plural, the pronoun must be plural. If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun must be singular.
Certain pronouns like anyone, anybody, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, and nobody are always singular.
Example: Anyone [antecedent] who says such a thing is [singular verb] just plain wrong.
The same is true for either and neither. Even though they seem to be referring to two things, they are singular.
Example: Neither Payal nor Charu is correct.
In other cases, the determination of singular or plural depends on what the pronoun refers to—a single person or a group.
Example: The person who broke my window is still unknown.
Example: The people who have been without power are now complaining.
One of the most frequently asked grammar questions is regarding the pronoun who (who, whose, whom, whoever, and whomever). A good way to understand the uses for who is to compare it with the pronouns he and they. Table 2.23 shows the comparisons between the pronoun who and the pronouns he and they.
One good way to choose between the various forms of who is to think of the sentence in terms of the choice between he and him. If him feels right, choose whom. If he sounds better, pick who.
Example: Who do you think is coming? [Do you think he is coming?.
Example: Whom shall we invite to the movie? [Shall we invite him to the movie?]
Example: Give the money to whomever you please. [Give the money to him..
Example: Give the money to whoever wants it most. [He wants it most..
Example: Whoever guesses my age will win the prize. [He guesses my age..
Another related problem is confusing whose with who’s. Who’s looks like it is possessive; however, it is really a contraction of who is.
Example: Who’s going to take the assignment.
Example: Whose glove is this.
PROPER ADJECTIVES
Proper adjectives come from proper nouns that act as adjectives to modify another noun. Proper adjectives begin with a capital letter.
Example: He was the first Hispanic [proper adjective] mayor in the history of the city.
PROPER NOUNS
Proper nouns are the name of a specific person, place, or thing. They are always capitalized.
Example: Atlanta, France, Lind.
PROTATIS
Protatis is a term that describes an if clause in a conditional sentence.
Example: If you buy a lottery ticket [protatis], you might win a hundred million dollars.