Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures, and t indicate tables.

A

Accelerated life testing (ALT) 172, 176
AC motor water pumping system 255
Ageing, PV module 125
Air mass (AM) number 9
Air-source heat pump (ASHP), integrated photovoltaic 263–264
Amonix 7700 219t
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) 
degradation rate 76, 76f
module stability 37–40, 38t
physical model 107–108
Staebler–Wronski effect 37, 39
Analytical optimal sizing method, stand-alone system 281–282

B

Balance of system (BOS) 1, 135–136
components 5, 136–138, 327, 334
LCI of 219–221, 220t
trends in 176–177
Bankable PV 89
BAPV  See Building attached PV (BAPV)
Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) 112
Battery charge controller (BCC) 268
Battery charging system 268–270
Battery hybrid integrated inverters 279t
BDI  See Bidirectional inverter (BDI)
Bell Telephone Systems 157
Bent frames 88, 88f
Bidirectional inverter (BDI) 260f, 272–275, 293–294
Bifacial PV modules 142–143, 144f
BIM  See Building information modelling (BIM)
BIPV  See Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV)
BOS  See Balance of system (BOS)
BPT-S 5 hybrid battery-storage solar inverter 278f
Building attached PV (BAPV) 
mounting configuration 113–114
orientation 119
Building information modelling (BIM) 244
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) 
applications 248
categories 243f
coloured BIPV modules 239–240
cost 236, 236t
design practice 237–242
economic assessment 247–248
electrical and meteorological quantities, monitoring 245
electricity yield monitoring 245–246
flexible BIPV modules 238–239
future energy system and 235
mechanical properties 238–239
modules as building components 247
mounting configuration 113–114
obstacles 237
operation and maintenance 236–237
optical properties 239–241
photovoltaics in the construction sector 244–245
practical aspects 246
presentation and analysis of monitored data 245–246
product development 248–249
regulations and standardization efforts 242–244
requirements and definition 235–236
rigid BIPV modules 238, 238t
transparent BIPV modules 240–241, 241f
Bureau Internationale des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) 42–44

C

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) 
degradation rate 76, 76f
energy payback time 221–222, 222f
environmental impact assessment 216–217, 217t
greenhouse gas emissions 222–225, 223t, 224–225f
module stability 37–40
physical model 107–108
PV module life cycle 223t
California Energy Commission (CEC) inverter efficiency 15–17, 162–163
CED  See Cumulative energy demand (CED)
CIGS PV  See Copper indium gallium selenide PV (CIGS PV)
Circuit models, equivalent 106
Cladding materials 236t
Coloured BIPV modules 239–240
Commissioning process 328, 329f
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) 253
Component sensor 304
Concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) technology 218–219, 218t, 297–301, 298–299f
energy output and prevailing meteorological conditions 312
environmental impact assessment 218–219, 218t
future trends 317–318
impact factors on CPV performance 302–306
loss mechanisms and energy output 314–317
performance and energy yield prediction 311–317
performance measurement 306–311
performance ratio and performance index 313
standardization 306–311, 307t
Concentrator standard operating conditions (CSOC) 309f, 311, 311f
Concentrator standard test conditions (CSTC) 309f, 311, 311f
Construction products regulation (CPR) 242
Continuous genset operation 288–289
Conversion efficiency 
as function of irradiance 323
as function of temperature 323
inverter 324
of PV modules 323
Copper indium gallium selenide PV (CIGS PV) 
degradation rate 76, 76f
environmental impact assessment 217–218
module stability 37–40
physical model 107–108
CPR  See Construction products regulation (CPR)
CPV  See Concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) technology
Cracked cells 85–86, 86f
Crystalline silicon 83f
energy payback time 221–222, 222f
environmental impact assessment 215–216, 215f
degradation rate 75–77, 76–77f
greenhouse gas emissions 222–225, 223t, 224–225f
module stability 37–40
physical model 106–108
CSOC  See Concentrator standard operating conditions (CSOC)
CSTC  See Concentrator standard test conditions (CSTC)
Cumulative energy demand (CED) of PV system 212–213
Current control voltage source inverter (CCVSI) mode 272

D

DC/AC inverter efficiency 161–165
DC/DC optimizer 157t, 158
DC motor-based PV water pumping systems 255
DC to AC conversion 317
Degradation 
crystalline Si modules 80
rates 72f, 76–77f, 79–80
Delamination 83–84f, 84
Design for reliability (DfR) 177
Device under test (DUT) 27, 46
and measurement equipment 31–32
Diesel-based power generation 251
Diesel fuel-based plants 251
Diesel generator 259f
Diesel hybridization, PV 265–266, 265f
Diode equivalent circuit 106, 106f
Diode models 106
Directly-coupled stand-alone PV system 252, 254–255, 254f
Direct normal irradiance (DNI) 303, 303–304f
Discolouration 81–83, 82t, 83f
DNI  See Direct normal irradiance (DNI)
DUT  See Device under test (DUT)
Dye-sensitized devices 107–108
Dye solar module 240f

E

ECLIPSE, European Commission's project 217
Effective irradiance 33
Electrical MPP tracking principles and losses 149–157, 149–152f
Electrical parameters 23–25, 41t, 45f
Electrical PV module modelling 105–106
advantages of different approaches 110–111
empirical models 108–110
physical models 106–108
Electroluminescence 85–86, 86f
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) 216
Emission 
GHG 209–211, 214, 222–225, 224–225f
toxic gas 226–228, 226f, 228f
Empirical models 108–110
Energy flow, grid-connected with storage 168f, 169t
Energy pay-back time (EPBT) 209, 213, 221–222, 222f
Energy rating (ER) 104–105, 109–110
Energy return on investment (EROI) 209, 213–214, 221–222
Energy yield prediction 
modelling uncertainty 123–125
PV module 104–111
Environmental impact assessment 209
EPBT  See Energy pay-back time (EPBT)
EPC contract commissioning procedures 328
EPC contractor 328–329
final acceptance 331
mechanical completion check 328–329
provisional acceptance 329–330
Equivalent circuit models 106
ER  See Energy rating (ER)
EROI  See Energy return on investment (EROI)
ESPs  See Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)
Estimate perturb-perturb (EPP) method 155
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) encapsulant 81
Euro Efficiency, inverter 15, 16f, 162–163

F

Fault identification and analysis 196–200, 198–200t, 202t
Feed-in tariffs (FiTs) 251
Fill factor (FF) 8, 23–25, 84, 109–110, 304–305, 304f
FLATCON-type CPV module 298f, 303–305, 303f, 305f, 306t
Flexible BIPV modules 238–239
Forecasting of PV system output 201–206
cloud movement, satellite observations 204
cloud movement, sky camera observation 203–204
correlation of PV system fleet output 204–205
time periods 203
Frames, PV module 88, 88f
Fraunhofer ISE module calibration (CalLab) 61f, 62
Fresnel lens 299–300, 300f

G

Genset-dominated system 258
Geometrical shading loss, CPV 316
GHI  See Global horizontal irradiance (GHI)
Glass breakage, in thin-film modules 87–88, 88f
Global brightening 186–187
Global dimming 186–187
Global horizontal irradiance (GHI) 185–186
Global solar pump market 251–252
Global warming potential (GWP) 214
Granular polysilicon 215–216
Greenhouse gas (GHG) 209
emission 209–211, 214, 222–225, 224–225f
Green roof 142, 143f
Grid-connected inverter 162f, 280
power electronic basics of 158–161, 159f
Grid-connected PV system 1–3, 2f, 135–136, 192
DC/AC inverter efficiency 161–167, 162f
loss factors for 13–14
monitoring parameters and measurement conditions for 193, 194–195t
performance and wiring loss 167
PV inverter and PV generator sizing 165
quality of MPP tracking 165–166
and storage 167–172, 168f, 173–174f
Grid forming, PV hybrid solutions 258–261
Grid-interactive inverter 270–272, 271f, 273f
Ground-mounted PV arrays 323
Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM) 40–46
GWP  See Global warming potential (GWP)

H

HCPV  See High concentration photovoltaic (HCPV) system
Heat-welded sheet materials, roofing 120
HERIC topology, inverter 159f
Heterojunction technology (HJT) 
degradation rate 76, 76f
High concentration photovoltaic (HCPV) system 299–301, 300f
High concentration photovoltaic (HCPVT) thermal system 300
Hill climbing MPP method 153
HJT  See Heterojunction technology (HJT)
Hot-spot, PV module 86–87, 87f
Hybrid PV systems  See Stand-alone PV hybrid system

I

IC method  See Incremental conductance (IC) method
Immediate self-consumption rate (ISCR) 168–169
Incremental conductance (IC) method 155–156, 156t, 156f
Industrial PV solutions 264
Industrial/service activity, PV hybrid systems for 266–267, 266f, 268f
Integrated photovoltaic air-source heat pump 263–264
Interactive inverter 293–294
Intermittent genset operation 263
International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (IEA PVPS) 2–3, 81, 197
International Energy Agency (IEA) Task 12 LCA Guidelines 209–211
International standardization 292–294
battery 294, 294t
BCCs 292–293
consumption 294, 294t
inverter 293–294, 293t
PV module 292, 293t
International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic (ITRPV) 137–138
Intuitive optimal sizing method, stand-alone system 281
Inverter 157t, 158f, 160, 165
accelerated life testing 176
battery hybrid integrated 279t
bidirectional 293–294
BPT-S 5 hybrid battery-storage solar 278f
DC/DC optimizer 157t, 158
efficiency 161–165
grid-connected 280, 293–294
grid-interactive 270–272, 271f, 273f
HERIC topology 159f
interactive 293–294
microinverter 158, 223t
MPPT of 164
multiport 279f
multiport input/multioutput 275–279, 276f
off-grid 271t, 274t
photo 157t, 158f, 160, 165
power electronic basics of grid-connected 158–161, 159f
in PV hybrid systems 270–280, 271f, 274f, 277f
reactive power 160
sine wave 271t
square wave 271t
stand-alone 270, 293–294
transformerless 160
Inverter conversion efficiency 15, 16f, 161–165, 324
California Energy Commission (CEC) efficiency 15–17, 162–163
Euro efficiency 15, 162–163
Inverter product warranty 327–328
Inverter reliability 175–176
Irradiance, solar 
components 113f
conversion efficiency as function of 323
forecasting 201–206
global brightening 186–187
global dimming 186–187
global horizontal irradiance (GHI) 185–186
measurement 33–35, 184–187
meteorological datasets 112
models 113
satellite, measurement by 185–186
translation of horizontal to in-plane irradiance, models 113
typical meteorological year (TMY) 184
Irradiance dependency of module output, measurement of 52–54, 53–54f
Irradiation, solar 186–187 See also Irradiance, solar
ISCR  See Immediate self-consumption rate (ISCR)
Iterative optimal sizing method, stand-alone system 282
I–V curve measurement 23–25, 24f, 31–33, 31f, 51f, 59

L

Lattice matched triple-junction solar cells 306t
LCA  See Life-cycle assessment (LCA)
LCIA  See Life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA)
LCOE  See Levelized cost of energy (LCOE)
LCPV  See Low concentration photovoltaic (LCPV) system
Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) 80, 137–138
LFM  See Loss factor model (LFM)
LID  See Light-induced degradation (LID)
LiDAR  See Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) 209, 210f, 211
crystalline Si PV 215–216, 215f
Life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) 209–211
Life-cycle inventory (LCI), of BOS 219–221, 220t
Life-cycle stages of PV system 211–212, 212f
Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) 121
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 253
Light-induced degradation (LID) 37, 39, 73–75
Local environment for PV 120–121
Loss factor model (LFM) 110
Loss mechanism, identification of 198–200t
Loss of power supply (LPS) 281–282
Low concentration photovoltaic (LCPV) system 299–300, 299f

M

Maintenance 
corrective 333
operation and 324, 331–334
preventive 332
Maximum power point (MPP) 8–9, 23–25
Maximum power point tracker (MPPT) 153, 254
charge controllers 269, 269t
efficiency 153
of inverter 164
performance of 154f
quality of 165–166
variation of MP voltage 149–157
Maximum power point tracker algorithm 
hybrids 157
incremental conductance 155–156, 156t, 156f
performance 153–157
perturb and operate 153–155
principles and losses 149–157, 149–152f
tolerances, mismatch and 323–324
Mechanical mounting 139–149, 139–140f
new development and challenges 141–143, 143–144f
orientation and yield of fixed PV generator 144–146, 145f
performance increase through mechanical tracking 146–148, 146–148f
reliability aspect of mounting solutions and O&M costs 149
static requirement, building codes 140–141, 142f
Medium-size hybrid inverters 277
MER model  See Module energy rating (MER) model
Metallization corrosion 84, 85f
Meteorological datasets 111–112
Microcrystalline silicon 
degradation rate 76, 76f
Microinverter 157t, 223t
Mini-grid centralized implementation 267f
Modelling operating environments 111–119
influence of module orientation 115–119, 116–119f
meteorological datasets 111–112
mounting configurations 113–114
temperature 114–115, 115t
translation of horizontal to in-plane irradiance models 113
Modelling uncertainty 124–125
Modified sine wave inverter 271t
Module energy rating (MER) model 109–110
Module power warranty 327
Module product warranty 327
Monitoring PV system performance 191–200
fault identification approach 196–200, 198–200t, 202t
monitoring parameters and procedures 192–196, 194–195t
MPPT  See Maximum power point tracker (MPPT)
Multicluster off-grid system 266f, 275f
Multijunction solar cells 302–303, 315
Multimaster genset-dominated architecture 261
Multimaster inverter-dominated architecture 261
Multiport input/multioutput inverter 275–279, 276f
Multiport inverter 279f

N

Nameplate rating 74–75, 79f
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 138
Nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) 10, 58–59, 114, 188
Nonlinearity, PV module performance 79, 79–80f
Numerical optimal sizing method, stand-alone system 281

O

Off-grid inverter 271t
bidirectional 274t
Off-grid PV systems  See Stand-alone PV system
Open circuit voltage 7, 23–25
Operating conditions 
standard test conditions (STC) 9, 23
variation of parameters with 11
Operating environments, modelling 111–119
Operation and maintenance (O&M) contractor 331–332
Optical efficiency 297
Optimal sizing method, stand-alone system 280, 281f
analytical method 281–282
hybrid method 282
intuitive method 281
iterative methods 282
numerical method 281
stochastic method 282
Organic solar cell module 239f
Outdoor calibration and characterization, PV modules 59–60

P

Parasitic consumption, CPV 317
Performance index 313
Performance ratio (PR) 12–13, 245–246, 285, 313, 321
Perturb and operate (P&O) method 153–155, 154t
Photovoltaic air-source heat pump 263–264
Photovoltaic array 120, 120f
collecting array spatial data 121
Photovoltaic arrays into genset (diesel) system 286–287
Photovoltaic diesel hybridization 265–266, 265f
Photovoltaic-diesel with energy storage project 289f
Photovoltaic energy yield modelling 124
Photovoltaic environment 120–121
Photovoltaic for rural electrification 286–291
Photovoltaic generator 144–146, 145f
maximum power production 149–150
sizing 165
Photovoltaic Geographical Information System (PVGIS) 186, 188–189
Photovoltaic hybrid system for industrial/service activities 266–267, 266f, 268f
international standardization 292–294
PV inverters in 270–280, 271f, 274f
PV penetration in 263, 287f
sizing and optimization in 282
small-scale three-phase 284f
Photovoltaics in the construction sector 244–245
Photovoltaic module 
accelerated life testing 172, 176
ageing 125
bifacial 142–143
cost 135, 135f
efficiency 11–15
energy yield prediction 103–126
mechanical tracking of 146
operating temperature 187–188
rough handling of 138
standards development 89–90, 89–91t
technology 4–5, 5t
variation of, output 11
Photovoltaic module characterization 
angular response measurement 57–58
irradiance dependency measurement 52–54, 53–54f
outdoor calibration and characterization 59–60
power rating measurement 54–56, 55f
spectral response measurement 56–57, 57f
STC power verification, sampling for 62–64, 63f
temperature coefficient 49–52, 51f
temperature dependency measurement 49–52
thermal behaviour 58–59
variability 60–62, 61f
yield-relevant 49
Photovoltaic module failure modes 
cracked cells and snail trails 85–86, 86f
delamination 83–84f, 84
discolouration 81–83, 82t, 83f
frame damage 88, 88f
glass breakage 87–88, 88f
hot-spots 86–87, 87f
metallization corrosion 84, 85f
potential-induced degradation 85
Photovoltaic module performance modelling 103–105, 104f
reduction due to shading 121–123
Photovoltaic module reliability 172–175
historical survey 81
standards 91
Photovoltaic module stability 
ageing 125
climate and mounting 77, 77f
historical survey 71–74, 72–73f
module vs. system degradation 78, 78f
nameplate rating 74–75, 75f
nonlinearity 79, 79–80f
technology trends 38t, 75–77, 76f
Photovoltaic module STC measurement 26–27, 26f
calibration and traceability 47–48, 47f
correction of I–V curves to STC 36–37
directional distribution of light 28
electrical parameters 23–25, 41t, 45f
irradiance measurement 33–35
I–V curve hysteresis 32–33
I–V curve measurement 23–25, 24f, 31–33, 31f
I–V curve parameters 6–9, 40
measurement uncertainty for 40–46
power conversion in 25
P–V curve measurement 23–25, 24f
reference spectrum 34–35, 34f
spectral mismatch correction 34–35
stability 37–40, 38t
STC power rating of 25
temperature measurement 35–36
Photovoltaic penetration, in PV hybrid system 263
Photovoltaic plant 
classification in terms of complexity 333
corrective maintenance 333
future trends 334–335
inverter conversion efficiency 324
logistics for corrective maintenance 333–334
module conversion efficiency 323
operation 166f, 331–332
operation and maintenance 324, 331–334
in practice 321–324
preventive maintenance 332
shading 322
soiling and snow 322–323
tolerances, mismatch and MPP tracking 323–324
Photovoltaic plant design 
BOS components 327
inverter selection 325–326
maximum PV array voltage 326
module selection 325
MPP voltage 326
power 326
support structures 327
transformers 326
warranties and risk 327–328
Photovoltaic solar home systems 254f
Photovoltaic system 
categories 1–3
concentrator 3
costs 136–138
degradation 78, 78f
fault identification 196–200, 198–200t, 202t
flat plate 3
lifetime and quality 17–18
tracking 3
types 136–138
Photovoltaic system performance 
current–voltage and power–voltage characteristics 1–3, 6–9, 7f
efficiency 11–15
energy yield 12
forecasting 201–206
monitoring parameters and procedures 192–196, 194–195t
operating conditions 9–11
output simulation 188–191
performance ratio 12–13
parameters 15–17, 16f
simulation programmes 188–189
Physical models 106–108
Pico PV systems 253–254
PID  See Potential-induced degradation (PID)
Polysilicon, granular 215–216
Polysun, software for wind load calculation 141
Potential-induced degradation (PID) 85
Power conversion 25
Power converter, in stand-alone PV system 268–280
Power electronic basic, of grid-connected inverter 158–161, 159f
Power electronic circuit, principles and losses in 157–158
Power management, in stand-alone PV hybrid system 262
Power rating measurement 54–56, 55f
Predicting PV system performance 183–191
operating temperature 187–188
solar data sources 184–187
Pulsed solar simulators 27–28
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) 158
charge controllers 269
P–V curve measurement 23–25, 24f
PVGIS  See Photovoltaic Geographical Information System (PVGIS)
PV Quality Assurance Task Force (PVQAT) 89
PV*Sol software 188–189
PVsyst software 188–189, 317
PWM  See Pulse-width modulation (PWM)
Pyranometer 185
Pyrheliometer 184–185, 303

Q

Quad-directional inverter 279f
R 
Reactive power 160
Realistic module operating temperature (ROMT) 59
Reliability 
design for reliability (DfR) 177
inverter 175–176
photovoltaic module 172–175
Renewable energy sources (RES) 261
Rigid BIPV modules 238, 238t
ROMT  See Realistic module operating temperature (ROMT)
Roof pitch 120
Rooftop PV application 219
Ross's model, module temperature 114
Rural electrification, PV for 286
continuous genset operation 288–289
integration of PV arrays into genset 286
low penetration 287
medium penetration 287–288
mini-grids with intermittent genset operation 290–291, 290–291f

S

SAM  See Solar advisor model (SAM)
Sandia array performance model (SAPM) 109
Satellite measurement, solar irradiance 185–186
Schletter Solar Mounting Systems 139, 142f
SCR  See Self-consumption rate (SCR)
Self-consumption rate (SCR) 168–169
Self-sufficiency ratio (SSR) 168–169
Semiconductor, wide bandgap 176–177
Sensor component 304
Series type charge controllers 269
Shading 
CPV 316
dependence on mounting arrangement 144–146
effect on PV performance 121
irradiance losses due to 121–123
modelling of 316
models 121–123
photovoltaic plants in practice 322
Short circuit current 7, 23–25
SHS  See Solar home system (SHS)
Shunt charge controller 269
environmental impact assessment 215–216, 215f
silicon flat-plate PV 302–303
solar cell, crystalline 107–108
Simulation, PV system output 188–191
Simulator, solar 26–48, 29t, 52
Sine wave inverter 271t
Single diode equivalent circuit 106, 106f
Single-phase products 277
Single switched master PV hybrid system 258
Single-switching master control 261–262
Small-scale PV system 253
Small-scale three-phase PV hybrid system 284f
SMRs  See Spectral matching ratios (SMRs)
Snow load 141
Soiling 
CPV 316
and snow 322–323
Solar advisor model (SAM) 110
Solar cells 
concentrator 301, 302f
crystalline silicon, model 107–108
latticematched triple-junction 306t
multijunction 302–303, 315
terrestrial concentrator, GaInP/GaInAs/Ge 218t
Solar data sources 184–187
Solar home system (SHS) 254f, 255–256, 256f
Solar irradiation 186–187
Solar pumps 255
Solar simulator 26–48, 29t, 52
nonuniformity measurement of 28, 30–31, 30f
pulsed 27–28
spectral distribution of 28–29, 34f
SONDA project 112
Spatial nonuniformity factor 33–34
Spectral matching ratios (SMRs) 304–305
Spectral mismatch correction 34–35
Spectral response (SR) measurement 56–57, 57f
Square wave inverter 271t
SSR  See Self-sufficiency ratio (SSR)
Staebler–Wronski effect 37, 39
Stand-alone inverter 270
Stand-alone power system design 280–282
Stand-alone PV hybrid system 
grid forming 258–261
micro-/mini-grids 286–291
power management in 262
PV penetration in 263
residential solutions 256–257, 257–258f
Stand-alone PV system 1–3, 3f, 17, 251–267
directly coupled 252, 254–255
measuring and assessing performance 283–286
performance analysis 285
performance for PV pump 286
performance metrics 285
power converters implemented in 268–280
sizing of 280
Standard test conditions (STC) 9–10, 23, 104–105
correction of I–V curves to 36–37
density function for measurement of 43f
deviation of, voltage 150–151
exemplary procedure to determine 41f
impact of stability effects on 38t
measurement uncertainty for 40–46
parameters 9, 25, 104–105
power 49, 60
rating of PV module 25
verification 62–64, 63f
Stochastic optimal sizing method, stand-alone system 282
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system 312
Surveying method, to assess photovoltaic systems 122t

T

Temperature coefficient of module, measurement of 49–52, 51f
Temperature, conversion efficiency as function of 323
Terrestrial concentrator solar cell, GaInP/GaInAs/Ge 218t
Thermal behaviour, PV module 10, 58–59, 187–188
Ross’ model, module temperature 114, 115t
Thermal transient measurement (TTM) 309–310, 310f
Thin-film CdTe PV modules 224
Three-phase multicluster off-grid system 266f
Toxic gas emissions 226–228, 226f, 228f
Tracker pointing error 316
Tracker wind stow 316–317
Tracking, mechanical 146–148, 146–148f
Transparent BIPV modules 240–241, 241f
TTM  See Thermal transient measurement (TTM)
Tucson Electric Power (TEP) generating plant 221, 221t
Typical meteorological year (TMY) 184

U

Uncertainty modelling 124–125
ageing 125
in modelling assumptions 123–124
in yield modelling 123–125
Uni-Solar 224

V

Visual inspection sheet 92–97
Voltage control voltage source inverter (VCVSI) mode 272

W

Warranty and risk 327–328
Water pump, PV 255
Wind load 141
World Photovoltaic Scale (WPVS) design 33

Z

Zurich, performance example of 136
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