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Instructions, Presentations, Proposals, and Resumes
“How do I know what I think until I see what I say?”
—E. M. Forster
Instructions
OUR DAILY AND PROFESSIONAL LIVES are filled with instructions. There are instructions for using a power tool, installing the latest software, operating a cell phone, cooking dinner, installing a new sink, programming your VCR, and assembling your child’s bicycle, not to mention instructions from your spouse about what not to say in front of your in-laws. In business, your job might involve providing payment instructions for customers, shipping procedures for vendors, using new software, adhering to hiring policies, completing questionnaires, or submitting proposals.
Who among us hasn’t tossed a set of instructions aside after uttering, “These instructions are useless!” On the other hand, you may know the story of the help-desk advisor who received a phone call from a customer explaining that the new computer she bought was not working properly. She went on to say that the image on her monitor was frozen. She added her manual “said to press any key,” but she did not know which one was the “any” key. Absurd? Comical? Yes and no. If there is one occasion for Murphy’s Law to exert its force on writing, it’s when anyone tries to write instructions. Think of all the times you had to explain once, twice, maybe three times what appeared to you to be the simplest task. When trying to explain technical instructions to a nontechnical reader, the opportunities for confusion increase a thousand percent. You try saying it another way. You draw a picture. You write the instructions in simple terms. You actually show your listener how to do something. In writing you can’t do that because you are usually not there to explain what step to take or procedure to follow if a problem occurs.
Writing instructions is never easy for a number of reasons. The first and most significant has to do with your knowledge of the subject. Usually the more you know and even the more adept you are at your subject, the more difficulty you have writing clear instructions. When you perform a process often or routinely many of the procedures become second nature to you. You follow each step automatically. In writing, these same steps occur in your mind but are often not expressed for your readers.
For example, let’s say you have to write instructions for changing a tire on a deserted highway. There are no public telephones and you do not have a cell phone to call your local road service. In most instances, you would most likely either forget to tell your reader to first shut off the engine or how to use the jack or take the spare out of the trunk or loosen the bolts. At times your readers will also need to know what purpose the instructions will serve. They will also need to know what not to do: “Warning: Do not connect the wires when standing in a pool of water.”
The next obstacles to writing instructions are clarity and simplicity. Instructions are not the occasion for showing off your writing skills. Use simple words and sentences. Prefer active to passive voice—that is, place your activity words in the beginning.
NOT: The screw is turned three times to the right.
BUT: Turn the screw three times to the right.
Remember to list and number the steps. Readers appreciate lists because of the benefits offered by information presented in a visually orderly sequence. Write the instructions as if you were learning them for the first time, and the chances for success will be enhanced tenfold.
Here are words and phrases you will find helpful when writing instructions:
always
avoid
caution
change
check
connect
described
explain
how to
indicated
installation
method
normal
note
operation
procedures
remove
standard
steps
usually
warning
Example
Choosing a Location for Your Fax Machine
1. Place your fax machine on a flat, stable surface, such as a desk or table.
2. Select a place that is free of vibration and shocks.
3. Locate the machine near a telephone jack and a standard, grounded power outlet.
4. Do not place the machine near heaters, air conditioners, water, chemicals, or refrigerators.
5. Do not expose the machine to direct sunlight, excessive heat, moisture, or dust.
6. Do not connect the machine to electrical outlets controlled by wall switches or automatic timers.
Presentations
“Speak briefly, and to the point.”
—Cato
At first glance, the most noticeable difference between oral and written communication is in the manner of presentation, spoken versus written words. As a result, the subtle distinctions between the two modes of communication may not be immediately apparent. Both methods provide information in the form of facts, opinions, judgments, numerical data, conclusions, and recommendations. Both require similar tasks during preparation:
1. The purpose and scope of the report must be identified.
2. The audience must be analyzed or considered.
3. Illustrations may be employed, though more so in oral presentations.
4. The tone must be appropriate to both subject and occasion.
On closer examination, however, it becomes apparent that there are advantages and differences unique to both oral and written communication. As a tangible document composed of so many pages, the written report conveys a concreteness and permanence that underscores its importance. Even though the reader can scan the report at a leisurely pace, the reading process requires active participation. Certain passages can be highlighted, commented upon, or reread.
The oral report or presentation, by contrast, allows the speaker to verbally emphasize major points through vocal tone, inflection, volume, and well-timed pauses. Ideas can be explained, clarified, or exemplified. There is greater flexibility in matters of usage and grammatical correctness because listeners don’t always expect public speakers to be letter-perfect. The speaker can use body language and facial expressions to emphasize key ideas or even influence the listener’s response. Humor can be injected depending on the topic.
Planning the Presentation
Similar to a written report, an oral presentation requires careful planning. Important facts to consider include the scope, purpose, and focus as well as formats for organizing and developing ideas and findings. Here are some points to bear in mind when devising a first draft:
• Avoid discussing difficult and complex issues in excessive detail.
• Limit the use of facts and numerical data to supporting key ideas and findings.
• Present the most important ideas and issues in the opening or closing.
• Summarize main ideas in concluding comments.
• Prefer familiar words to enhance a conversational tone.
• Prepare answers to possible questions.
Considering the Audience
The need to consider your audience is no less important for an oral presentation than it is for a written one. The same questions must be posed in terms of the audience’s general background, interest in the subject, and ability to understand any complex or technical material. You need to decide if the presentation will be informal or formal. Should you include an anecdote or two or perhaps some humor here and there or be strictly limited to sober facts? How long can you expect the audience to listen to the topic? How much detail will they appreciate? Should you allow for a question and answer period and if so, then for how long? Whenever we speak we are our most attentive listener. Can we expect the same of our audience? Perhaps not. For this reason you would do well to assume the listener’s chair and ask these questions:
1. If I had to attend my presentation, how would I prefer the material to be presented? Informally? With humor? Lots of illustrations? Brevity?
2. What would hold my attention throughout the presentation? A variety of topics? Benefits to me? Pitfalls to avoid? Hard-earned lessons?
3. Considering the subject matter, would there be a time in the presentation when my mind is likely to wander? What would keep me interested?
4. Am I getting too much or too little information? Is the speaker’s knowledge of the subject and expertise beyond mine?
Preparing an Outline
For many speakers, the greatest fear is that at some crucial moment in the discussion their minds will go blank or they will embarrassingly stutter and stumble from one incohesive thought to another. Preparing an outline of key ideas will help reduce such anxiety. Reducing longer sentences and masses of data to key words or phrases will serve as “touchstones” to memory and continuity of thought.
For instance, if your sentence reads:
The School of Business Education serves approximately 1,500 students, of which 60 percent are undergraduate and 40 percent graduate students, and employs a full-time faculty of 30 instructors.
In your outline you would note:
• School of Business Education: 1,500 students.
• 60% undergraduate; 40% graduate.
• 30 full-time faculty.
Much easier to remember, isn’t it? Preparing an outline consisting of key phrases and the sequence of information can help you feel a lot less pressure and convey a smoother flow of information.
Writing the Opening
There is no guaranteed way to attract your audience’s attention during the opening moments of your presentation. However, if your listeners are not “hooked” in the beginning, there is little chance of their coming round afterwards, unless you resort to slides or other illustrations. There are a number of proven initial techniques you can use to help you get your audience involved. For example:
Offer Interesting or Unsettling Facts
Sometimes unusual or controversial information can “jump start” your discussion. You don’t have to make melodramatic announcements or sensational claims. Rather, you can relate a little known fact or correct a mistaken notion:
It is hard to believe that despite the enormous educational opportunities in the United States, there are more than 40 million functionally illiterate Americans. Even more startling, half of the poor souls are high school graduates.
Involve the Listener
All salespeople know that before they can hope to close a sale they must gain their customer’s attention. There must be some involvement or shared understanding. Asking a question such as this will help diffuse any boredom or indifference to your topic:
What can we do about this problem that is certain to undermine our political and economical stability and growth in the coming decade?
Use a Quotation
Quotations are wonderful aids to initiating, developing and concluding your discussion. Remember that quotes should neither be too long nor complicated.
“There is only one thing in the world worse than being
talked about, and that is not being talked about.”
—Oscar Wilde
“There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told
the truth.”
—Mark Twain
Relate an Anecdote
Most people love stories and anecdotes, so you might want to tell an amusing tale that aptly serves to introduce your subject. Anecdotes should never be long nor contain objectionable material or words. Rather, relevance and good taste are the best guidelines to appropriateness. Here is one way to introduce a report on functional illiteracy:
The other day the computerized cash register at my local supermarket broke down after totaling the price of a gallon of milk, loaf of bread, and dog biscuits to $6.37. Since the drawer was open, I handed a $20 bill to the cashier fully expecting she would be able to make change. She stared at the total amount due. Then she stared at the $20 bill. Then she stared at me. “I have to wait until the register comes back on,” she announced.
My experience is not unique. Are we over-relying on machines to help us carry out previously simple tasks or facing a crisis of functional illiteracy? I’d like to share my findings with you today in discussing the state of basic skills in the U.S. workforce.
Provide Background Information
Background details provide the listener with a frame of reference for your discussion. Very often this information can include definitions of important terms, a statement of purpose or your goals, and any additional insights that may help your listener fully appreciate your comments. Keep the number of details to a minimum to avoid your listener experiencing information overload. The benefit of providing background details rests in orienting your listeners to your presentation’s focus and scope, not merely overwhelming them with endless facts and figures. Here’s an example:
Last year, 35 percent of the corporations surveyed for this report repeated the equivalent of high school basic level reading, writing, and math skills for their employees. One major firm spent 5 million dollars to train 14,000 workers nationwide. What are the reasons for this crisis in basic skills among members of the American workforce? Too much television? Too many video games? Are there solutions to this growing problem?
Concluding the Presentation
If the opening remarks of your presentation must attract your audience’s attention and your subsequent comments develop and sustain that interest and attention, the conclusion will either reinforce key points and findings or urge action or further involvement. No information should be introduced in your conclusion that has not been previously discussed. Also, in most instances, a simple “thank you” is the best postscript.
Don’t Read the Report!
In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, when a group of actors visits Elsinore Castle, Hamlet advises them to “suit the action to the word, the word to the action.” The same advice holds true today. Although you need not be an actor to deliver an effective presentation, you must consider a tone and style appropriate to the report’s content and audience. Using a light and breezy manner in announcing poor earnings performance or loss of sizable contracts will hardly be appreciated by your listeners. Nor would an emotionless, monosyllabic droning delivery convey a humorous anecdote.
Any speaker who simply reads a presentation in a monotone voice is certain to lose the audience’s attention. Remember to convey a sense of enthusiasm no matter how dry the topic. Just as no one enjoys one-sided conversations with people who either only talk about themselves or monopolize a discussion, neither will your listeners enjoy your endless stream of thoughts. We rarely appreciate anyone talking at rather than to us.
At the same time, reading a report is not conversation. The rhythms of speech are different, more measured and pronounced. We don’t want to have many extended moments of silence between sentences. The tone must convey liveliness but not shouting. Your audience is not expecting a sermon. They can get that elsewhere. People want information expressed in a manner they can enjoy and understand. They want to feel that their time is not being wasted. They want to feel that what you have said is worthwhile, incisive, and ultimately useful. Above all, never confuse an oral presentation with a lecture. Rather, think of your presentation as an extended conversation with more than one person.
Proposals
Proposals are detailed documents designed to persuade your reader to accept an idea, recommendation, or solution to a problem, adopt a plan, buy a product, use your services, or give you money for research. Proposals are sometimes written to offer suggestions. Proposals can take many forms. Depending on the content and your relationship to the reader, they can be informal or formal, brief or lengthy, and expressed through memos, letters, as separate formal documents, or perhaps even via e-mail. They can be written for internal or external audiences, may be solicited or unsolicited, or may be in response to a Request for a Proposal (commonly referred to as an RFP) or a Request for a Quote (RFQ).
Strategy Suggestions for Successful Proposals
Whether the goal is to persuade upper management to accept your suggestions for improving productivity or for your consulting group to win a sizable government contract, think of your proposal as a variation of a sales letter. After all, isn’t the basic idea of any proposal, including one for marriage, to “sell” your reader (or prospective mate) to accept your ideas or you? In all proposals, written or verbal, the overall thrust and tone must be persuasive. Moreover, similar to a marriage proposal, you will need to supply supporting details, such as facts, statistics, numerical data, approach or procedures, criteria or standards for evaluating effectiveness or success, fees, sequences of activities, dates, and lists of personnel or who will be invited to the wedding. Most importantlt, your proposal must include a benefit statement or list of benefits. What do you hope to accomplish? How will your proposal save the company time and money? What solutions are you offering that will assuredly address an ongoing problem? In brief, what’s in it for your reader? Every successful salesperson knows that the best way to get the order is to offer potential customers exactly what they need and want. I have known imaginative sales representatives who were effective at creating a need for their customers or leading them toward seeing a need they didn’t know existed.
Perhaps the best method for emphasizing the benefits of your proposal is to place them in a cover letter or the introduction. The advantages to your reader must be clearly stated. They must be able to see how you can save them time and money, improve workplace safety, increase productivity and job performance, enhance a product or service, or provide needed training. In between, the details should realistically and logically support your premise. Solutions must seem practical and feasible. Arguments must be irrefutable and based on fact. Weigh all factors before offering a conclusive solution or recommendation. Emphasize the likelihood of immediate practical application or advantage. Consider and possibly address opposing viewpoints or alternative approaches. Perhaps ask these questions: How convincing is my proposal? Would I accept it? Would I feel comfortable presenting it to upper management or allocating considerable funds in accepting the proposal?
When responding to an RFP, review carefully all instructions and wherever possible rework and include any particular buzzwords or jargon in your sentences. If possible, contact the agency or individual with authority to approve the proposal to clarify any confusing guidelines. Address all issues and questions. Avoid evasive or vague responses and comments. Perhaps it’s best if you think of writing and submitting proposals as similar to playing a game where you have only one chance to succeed. To paraphrase F. Scott Fitzgerald’s observation: There are no second acts in submitting proposals.
Designing/Formatting Proposals
There is no one way to design and structure a proposal. If you’re responding to a Request for a Proposal, you will have to adhere to the guidelines outlined. Sometimes a proposal consists of preprinted pages consisting of a series of numbered or lettered headings followed by blank spaces. However the instructions are presented, you must follow them to the letter. Do not attempt to be creative or imaginatively improve the format. To do so is to risk having your proposal rejected for “non-compliance” to strict guidelines. (I know because it has happened to me.) Formal proposals often include the following elements:
1. Cover letter.
2. Title page.
3. Introduction discussing the subject.
4. Scope of work.
5. Background.
6. Statement of objectives.
7. Strategy, work plan, or approach.
8. List of materials or equipment.
9. Schedule of work or activities.
10. Professional qualifications and experience.
11. List of personnel.
12. Evaluative methods.
13. Budget (costs/fees).
14. Conclusion.
15. Appendix of supporting documents.
Resumes
Everyone who has to work for a living strives to get a “good” or “better” job, which for most people consists of daily activities that are interesting and satisfying and that fully utilize their skills and experience. Some people want a job that offers challenges. Some enjoy travel and being outdoors. Others prefer a job that allows them to work on their own. Everyone wants a job that offers a decent salary, fringe benefits, retirement programs, and pleasant working conditions. Yet whether working toward obtaining a good job or an ideal one, your success in achieving that goal ultimately depends on your ability to “sell” yourself on paper, which consists of a letter of application and a resume, or detailed summary of your education, skills, and job experience.
Would You Hire You?
Perhaps the first question you need to ask when preparing a resume is this: Would you hire you? This question will prompt you to engage is helpful self-analysis of your strengths and weaknesses. For example:
• What job-related skills or training do you have to offer your employer?
• How much experience do you have in a particular field?
• What are your long-term professional goals?
• Do you possess any unique skills, such as speaking two languages, that would prove helpful in your daily responsibilities?
• Have you developed any special technical or expertise that will enhance your appeal to your prospective employer?
• Have you had exceptional job experiences that will prove valuable to your job performance?
• What particular accomplishments have you achieved that are relevant to the job you are seeking or reveal a positive character trait?
• What don’t you want in a job?
• Are there limitations or constraints, such as relocating to another state or salary requirements?
• What qualities, skills, knowledge, and interests will enable you to contribute to a company?
Letter of Application
If we are what we write to those who have never met us, then both your letter of application and resume will demonstrate your ability to communicate clearly and to the point. Because the letter of application is your initial sales pitch, you need to impress your reader not with just a list of details but also your writing skills. Your letter of application will reveal to your potential employer not merely what you know or have accomplished but your ability (or inability) to express your thoughts on paper. The next time you glance at your local newspaper’s job section, notice how many jobs ads require that applicants have “excellent written and verbal communication skills.” Include the following information in your letter of application:
1. The specific job for which you are applying. Incorporate as much wording as possible from the job announcement or briefly describe the type of position you are seeking.
2. Your reasons for applying, such as seeking greater professional challenges or utilizing of job skills and professional expertise.
3. How you can contribute to the organization. List the benefits the company will obtain by hiring you. Mention the special skills or significant experience and skills you can offer. Do not offer comments regarding your desire for higher pay, shorter working hours, and the chance to work with people who will like you.
4. Degrees, professional licenses, and certifications. Use a traditional letter format. Begin the letter with “Dear Mr. or Ms. _____” if you have a specific name (even if you feel uncomfortable doing so in addressing a stranger). If applying to a post office box number or you do not know the gender of the reader, use “Dear Sir or Madam,” “Dear Human Resource Manager,” or “Dear Personnel Representative” in your salutation. Always close with “Sincerely” or “Yours truly.”
Job Application Cover Letter Example
June 3, 20—
Alexis Smythe, Managing Editor
Company Name
Address
City, State Zip
Dear Ms. Smythe:
In response to the editorial position advertised in yesterday’s New York Times, enclosed is my resume, which outlines my considerable experience as an editor for various technical publications.
Although I have thoroughly enjoyed my current position as a senior editor of the popular Love That Technology, I am currently seeking greater challenges and opportunities for my skills.
My ten years of general editorial experience includes a working knowledge of the business aspects of publishing technical magazines and professional journals that would enable me to make an added contribution to your publication. When I attended Georgia State University and majored in English and journalism, I edited the college newspaper for three years. Many thanks for considering my application. I look forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely,
Writing the Resume
Various structural formats lend themselves to resume design, but the one you choose must be readable. Because your readers will have dozens of resumes to review, you need to present yourself in the most concise and visually appealing manner. Therefore, remember to present information about your professional experience selectively. You don’t have to list every job, award, and accomplishment, only what will prove appropriate to the position you hope to obtain. If possible, avoid mentioning salary expectations in the resume. Wait until you’ve been invited for an interview (and then only near its conclusion) to discuss this topic. If required, use terms such as negotiable and flexible to describe salary requirements.
Format for a Traditional Resume
A traditional resume contains the following information:
• Name.
• Contact Information: address, telephone number, and e-mail address.
Jeremy Mutsey
715 Laguna Lane
Los Angeles, CA 90048
[email protected]
Objective:A challenging, responsible executive position in hotel management.
Experience:
• General manager of a large hotel in southern California.
• Responsible for overall operations that include:
- Coordinating various social functions.
- Evaluating personnel performance.
- Scheduling training sessions for all service personnel.
Employment History:
1997–present: General Manager, Beverly Hills Palace
1992–1997: Catering Manager, Hilton Hotel, Chicago
1988–1992: Manager, Gandy’s Restaurant, New York
Education:
B.S. Hotel Management, New York University
Franklin K. Lane High School
References: Available upon request.
• Objective: Your career goals or reason for applying for the position.
• Experience: List first the most appropriate jobrelated experience.
• Employment History: Begin with the most recent or current position. Include dates and responsibilities.
• Education: List according to highest degree obtained.
• Additional Qualifications.
• References: State that these are available upon request.
Action Verbs
When describing your accomplishments and experience, use the action words below to achieve for greater force and precision. Here are some examples:
accomplished
administered
arranged
conducted
constructed
contributed
coordinated
created
designed
developed
devised
implemented
initiated
managed
operated
organized
planned
researched
supervised
Proofreading and Editing
Your reader will judge your application and resume on its correctness. Any glaring errors will stand out as if underlined in red. You don’t want to shoot yourself in the foot, so to speak, the way these applicants did:
I work with 20 odd people.
One of my strengths is my accuricy.
Proofread for spelling (don’t trust the spell-checker entirely), subject and verb agreement, punctuation, capitalization, dates, and general correct usage. Do not use slang.
Stretching the Truth
In our time of Internet information access, don’t attempt to exaggerate the truth of the details you provide regarding your education, work experience, current salary level, publications, awards, and any other feature that you believe will enhance your appeal to a prospective employer. Thanks to modern technology and the information detection it offers, you won’t be able to fool even some of the people anytime. It’s one thing to embellish an accomplishment or two and another to lie outright and be discovered. Stretching the truth beyond the proverbial “shadow of a doubt” may only ultimately serve to tighten the noose around your neck. If it’s discovered after you’ve been hired, aside from the embarrassment and humiliation you will experience, you will either be fired immediately or be so discredited you will have no choice but to resign. Embellishing a bit will not prove harmful. At the same time, remember that you do not have to be overly modest in presenting yourself. Listing accomplishments you are proud of will often reflect additional skills and may well impress your reader enough to invite you for an interview.