Index
Note: Page numbers with “f” denote figures; “t” tables; “b” boxes.
A
Above-ground biomass (AGB), 287b
effect on bending moment, 62–63
grain yield, 289t
Absorption flasks sampler method, 342
Acid esters, 214
Acid-catalyzed treatment, 188–190
Actinomycetes
abundance and biomass, 123t
Activity tests, 264–265
Administrative Evaluation Bureau (AEB), 350
ADS, See Anaerobically digested slurry
AEB, See Administrative Evaluation Bureau
Aerial photography, 338
AFEX, See Ammonia fiber/freeze explosion
Afforestation, 158–159
AFM, See Atomic force microscopy
AGB, See Above-ground biomass
Agricultural Cooperative S, 368
Agricultural machinery, 144
Agro-ecosystem, 108
Al-clad plates, 263
Algae
abundance and biomass, 123t
die and decompose, 333
Alkyl phosphite, 214
Alkyl phosphonate, 214
Alkylimidazolium salts, 209
α-1,4-glucosidic linkages, 238–239
α-Amylase, 238
α-L-Arabinofuranosidase, 237
Alnus sieboldiana, See Ohbayashabusi
Alumite catalyst, 263
Ammonia (NH3), 342
Ammonia fiber/freeze explosion (AFEX), 190
AmMYB308, See Antirrhinum majus MYB308
Amylases, 237–238
action and structure of, 235f
changes in cellobiohydrolases, 238f
GH13, 239
non-edible biomass, 237–238
starch, 238–239
Amylose, 185
Andosols, 123b
RothC modification for, 120
SOC changes in, 121b
Animal feeds
enrichment with metallic elements, 303
rice as, 67
Antirrhinum majus MYB308 (AmMYB308), 78–79
Arabidopsis thaliana MYB61 (AtMYB61), 78–79
Archaea, 128
Arthropods, 31
abundance and biomass, 123t
phytophagous, 39
research on population, 32
Artificial substances, 290
Atmosphere
CO2 effect in, 118
global temperature, 1–2
human activity effects, 1–2
puddling effect, 39–40
surface organic matter decomposition effect, 20
AtMYB61, See Arabidopsis thaliana MYB61
Atomic force microscopy (AFM), 185
B
abundance and biomass, 123t
C. glutamicum, 250
C. thermocellum, 250
E. coli, 250
filamentous, 128
free-living nitrogen-fixing, 130t
gram-positive, 125
role in cellulolytic material degradation, 229–230
soil, 126t
stall, 299
thermophilic, 249–250
Z. mobilis, 249
Z. palmae, 249
Basic Law on the Promotion of Biomass Utilization, 5
fundamental principles and governmental policies, 4t
Basic Plan for Promotion of Biomass Utilization, 5
Batch fermentation, 252–253
advantages, 252–253
semi-batch fermentation, 254
sugar concentration, 253
BDF, See Biodiesel fuel
β-1,3-oligosaccharides, 236
β-Amylase, 239
β-glucosidase (BGL), 233
cellobiose hydrolysis, 236
fungal enzymes, 233–236
metabolic pathways, 233
Beta vulgaris L, See Sugar beet
BGL, See β-glucosidase
production from oil crops, 349–350
rapeseed use, 351
Biodiversity
land-use change effect, 334
maintenance in paddy fields, 45–47
of paddy fields in Japan, 43–45
Bioenergy
See also Herbaceous energy crops
See also Herbaceous energy crops
LCA, 310
criteria on biomass, 315–317
ecobalance, 310–311
functional unit, 311
goal and scope definition, 311
human society, 310
interpretation, 315
LCI, 312–313
LCIA, 313–315
life cycle inventory, 324t
production
and nutrients, 280f
target in 2020 in Japan, 13t
sustainability indicators, 322t
using attributes, 320–321
determination, 321
by global bioenergy partnership, 321–322
large-scale biomass production, 317–320
social, economic, and ecological factors, 320–321
sustainability indicators, 322t
using attributes, 320–321
determination, 321
by global bioenergy partnership, 321–322
large-scale biomass production, 317–320
social, economic, and ecological factors, 320–321
Bioethanol
evaluation from rice straw, 323b
LCI of indicators for, 324t
plants, 65
by batch fermentation, 252–253
of energy crops, 72t
Melle–Boinot method, 253–254
from resource crops, 350
from rice straw, 323b
SSF, 257t
rice cropping for, 47
Biofertilizer, 290
using compost manures, 295–296
cyclic food production systems, 290
in Japan, 291
problems, 295
use in crop production, 291
beneficial effects, 291
corn production, 292–295
forage rice leaf star production, 292
soybean production, 292
substances, 291t
Biofuel, 8–9
in BNS, 5
criteria for land, 333
crops, 63
production, 333
feedstocks, 16–17
first-generation, 16–17
second-generation, 16–17
from inedible biomass, 206
liquid, 9
price influence, 16
production, 182
starch-based, 333
Biogas
M&T automatic biogas stirring system, 300f
in methane fermentation tank, 299
Biogas slurry (BS), 302–303
carbon and undesirable elements in, 303
effect on CH4 emissions, 305f
use for rice production, 302–303
Biomass, 7–8
availability, 9
for bioenergy, 10
NPP, 9–10
available quantity for use in Japan, 10
characteristics, 9
energy advantages, 9
fuel solidification
calorific value, 270
compression process, 270–271
flat-die system, 272f
ring-die system, 271f
material flows
in biomass system, 14f
supply chain of, 13
resource
categories, 8
end-products, 8
supply chain
of biomass material flows, 13
stage of economic development, 14–15
technology, 15
target of bioenergy production, 13t
uses, 8–9
utilization technology
biomass energy, 269
carbonization and gasification, 271f
full-scale model of co-generation system, 270
in Japan, 269
promotion in local community, 270f
biomass town plan development, 350
biomass utilization, 348
goals, 5
in Japan, 69–70
purposes of, 360
Biomass production
BY, 52–53
in AAD, HS, and CT plants, 56t
direct sowing of rice, 55b
dry matter production affecting characteristics, 54t
farm machinery for converted fields and uplands, 147–148
farm machinery for low land
cropping system, 145
direct drill seeder, 147f
head-feeding, 147
pulverization of soil rate, 146–147
rice, 144–145
farming land management
abandoned agricultural land in Japan, 334–335
environmental indicators, 330–333
nutrient runoff, 333–334
forest biomass harvesting
biomass harvesting system, 170
forest biomass, 153
forest road network, 167
harvesting technology, 161
forest certification schemes, 325
CoC, 325–326
comparison, 329t
international, 326–327
Japanese local, 328–330
PEFC, 327
forestry production
information, 173
genetic analysis, 63
information systems in crop production
farm operations optimization, 152
personal digital assistant, 151–152
precision agriculture, 148
machinery for production
agricultural machinery, 144
energy crop, 144
herbaceous biomass, 144
in Japan, 144
photosynthetic efficiency of crop, 54–55
CO2 diffusion into canopy, 57
leaf photosynthesis rates, 57–58
rice, 62
characteristics of varieties, 58–61
CO2 diffusion, 62–63
light-intercepting characteristics of canopy, 62
lodging resistance, 62–63
photosynthesis rate in fully expanded young leaves, 62
as potential plant in Japan, 58
reduced rates of leaf photosynthesis, 62
solar radiation interception, 53–54
sustainable forest management
forest certification, 325
sustained yield, 325
Biomass Research Center, 69–70
Biomass systems, 13
biomass flow in, 14f
in consumption stage, 14
in conversion stage, 13–14
creation
EFA, 370
electric utility, 368–369
German FIT, 369–370
German legislative framework, 369
Japanese law, 370
lack of profitability, 369
primary energy supply, 369
prerequisites, 14–15
biofuel price influence, 16
conversion cost, 16–17
limited profitability, 16
location-specific conditions, 15
optimal biomass system, 14–15
priority of using biomass resources, 15
procurement cost, 16–17
in production stage, 13
Biomass town plan
See also Kuzumaki town
See also Kuzumaki town
establishment
BNS, 348
local municipalities, 348
features, 348
biomass resources, 348–349
biomass utilization, 350
cereal crops and sugar cane, 349–350
location-specific characteristics, 349
unsuccessful performance
GHG emissions, 350
lack of profitability, 351
rural infrastructure, 350–351
Biomass-degrading enzymes
changes in cellobiohydrolases, 238f
GH13, 239
non-edible biomass, 237–238
Starch, 238–239
BGL
Fungal enzymes, 233–236
hydrolysis of cellobiose, 236
metabolic pathways, 233
Hemicellulases, 236–237
α-L-Arabinofuranosidase, 237
Acetylxylan esterases, 237
Endo-1,4-β-D-xylanases, 237
hemicellulose degradation, 237
Bitterlich method, 336–337
BNS, See Biomass Nippon Strategy
Bran, 217–218
[C2mim]-type IL’s physicochemical properties, 219t
polysaccharide extraction, 217–218
efficiency, 218–219
1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium salts use, 219
with phosphinate-type ILs, 221–222
Brönsted acid catalyst, 197–198
Brönsted-type solid acids, 196
BS, See Biogas slurry
Bucking, 161
1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride, 207
BY, See Yield of plant biomass
C
C3H, See Coumarate 3-hydroxylase
C4H, See Cinnamate 4-hydroxylase
Cable logging system, 174
CAD, See Conifenyl alcohol dehydrogenase
Caffeic acid/5-hydroxyferulic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT), 76–77
antisense gene, 78
down-regulated alfalfa plants, 78
down-regulation of, 79–80
Caffeoyl CoA 3-O-methyltransferase (CCoAOMT), 97–98
Cambial dormancy, 89
Cambium, 88–89
Carbohydrate-Active enZymes (CAZy database), 228
amylases in, 239
EG/CBH, 228
extracellular BGLs, 236
groups, 228
Carbohydrate-binding module (CBM), 229
Carbon monoxide (CO), 273
Carbon neutrality, 317
Carbon sequestration
in rice soil, 305
Catalyst preparation
Al-clad plates, 263
using BET method, 264
colloidal silica solution, 263–264
experimental apparatus for, 264f
using impregnation method, 264
Cation exchanged capacity (CEC), 114
CAZy database, See Carbohydrate-Active enZymes
CBD, See Cellulose-binding domain
CBH, See Cellobiohydrolase
CBM, See Carbohydrate-binding module
CBP, See Consolidated bioprocessing
CCoAOMT, See Caffeoyl CoA 3-O-methyltransferase, S-adenosyl-methionine caffeoyl-CoA/5-hydroxyferuloyl-CoA O-methyltransferase
CCR, See Hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA reductase
CE, See Carbohydrate esterase
CEC, See Cation exchanged capacity
Cell recycling, 254
Cell wall
degradation enzyme production
cellulase production in plants, 86–88
lignin degradation enzyme production, 86
formation process
cell expansion, 90–91
cellulose microfibrils, 91
phloem or xylem cells, 90
primary wall, 90
S3 layer, 92
Z-helix, 91–92
cellulose-binding domain of, 228f
conformational changes in, 238f
GH6, 234b
GH9 and GH48, 230f
Cellulases
biomass-degrading enzymes
amylases, 237–238
BGL, 233
hemicellulases, 236–237
β-D-glucopyranose units, 225–226
intra-and intermolecular bonds, 226
properties
domains, 227–228
hydrolyze glucan chains, 226
processivity mechanism, 227
structure and function
CAZy database, 228
subsite and catalytic residues, 232
β-D-glucopyranose units, 225–226
dissolution, 206
enzymatic hydrolysis, 184
interaction, 207–208
intra- and intermolecular bonds, 226
structure of, 226f
Cellulose extraction
from bran with phosphinate-type ILs, 221t
without heating, 221–222
lower viscosity, 221
from bran with phosphonate-type ILs
β value, 219
C2mim-Type ILs, 219t
cellulose dissolution, 218–219
1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium salts, 219
Cellulose-binding domain (CBD), 227–228
of Cel7A, 231f
of cellobiohydrolase I, 228f
Trichoderma reesei Cel6A and Cel7A, 230–231
dissolving, 216–217
road map of research, 67–68
Cellulosome, 229–230
Certified wood products, 328–330
CF, See Chemical fertilizer
CFUs, See Colony-forming units
CGR, See Crop growth rate
CH4, See Methane
Chain of custody (CoC), 325–326
Chainsaws, 162
Charcoal
burning effect, 25
fuel wood use, 22
Hinoki use, 20–21
manufacture, 352
from woody biomass, 356
effect on BS, 305f
effect on nematodes, 36
farm fields using, 295
long-term field studies using, 136
for soybean production, 292
synthesized, 287b
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 340
Cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), 76–77
4CL, See 4-coumarate:coenzyme A ligase
Cleaning cutting, 159
Climate change, 1–3
Climber cutting, 159
Clostridium phytofermentans (C. phytofermentans), 250
Clostridium thermocellum (C. thermocellum), 229
cellulases from, 230f
cellulosome, 250
Clubroot fungi, 125
CMC, See Carboxymethyl cellulose
CO, See Carbon monoxide
CoC, See Chain of custody
COD, See Chemical oxygen demand
Colony-forming unit (CFU), 34
of soil actinomycetes, 35f
of soil bacteria, 35f
Combustion systems, 272–273
downflow system incinerator, 272f
using livestock manure by
using ash after combustion, 277
combustion method, 276–277
considerations in, 277
manure-fired power plant processing, 277
treatment of exhaust, 277
problems in biomass combustion, 273
Composting, 276
Conifenyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD), 76–77
Consolidated bioprocessing (CBP), 257
enzymetic hydrolysis, 257
saccharolytic enzymes, 257
Continuous cropping, injury by, 42–43
aerobic microorganisms, 43
Japanese paddy field system, 43
soil in upland fields, 43
cell recycling, 254
microbial cells immobilization, 254–255
Conversion cost, 16–17
Corn production
with green manure, 292
high-yield, 287b
Corn stover, 280
Corynebacterium glutamicum (C. glutamicum), 250
4-coumarate:coenzyme A ligase (4CL), 76–77
down-regulation in grasses, 78
Coumarate 3-hydroxylase (C3H), 76–77
CR, See Crotalaria
Cradle-to-grave concept, 310
Crop plants, annual, 52
Crop production
balancing crop production
catch crops, 285
environmentally sound crop production, 285f
high crop yields, 284–285
bioenergy production and nutrients, 280f
eco-friendly agriculture, 282
FUE, 281
nutrients fates
in Germany and France, 283
large-scale agricultural activities, 282–283
nitrogen loading to watershed, 283t
soil surface nitrogen balance estimation, 282t
water pollution, 283–284
in open fields, 281
pattern diagram, 281f
purpose of agriculture, 280
Crop protection, soil organism role in, 31
Crotalaria (CR), 287b
Cultivated fields in Japan, 29
injury by continuous cropping, 29
organism-preserving ability, 29–31
paddy–upland rotation, 29
proliferation of microorganisms in soil, 31
soil fauna in upland ecosystems, 31–32
soil organisms role, 31
soil-dwelling animals role, 31
D
DBH, See Diameter at breast height
Decomposable plant material (DPM), 119
Degradable crop residues, 304
DEM, See Digital elevation map
Denzin method, 156
Detritus food web, 32
detritus cycle, 32
fertilization influence, 32
prey and predator individuals, 33f
DGPS, See Differential GPS
DHW, See Domestic hot water
Diameter at breast height (DBH), 335–336
complete enumeration method, 335–336
sample plot method, 336
1,3-dialkylimidazolium carboxylates, 213
1,3-dialkylimidazolium chloride salts, 213
Dietary products, 280
Differential GPS (DGPS), 339
Digested slurry, 302
ADS, 297
biogas plants, 296
slurry injector, 302
tank process retention time, 302t
Digital elevation map (DEM), 176
Dimethylphosphate ((MeO)2PO2), 214
Domestic fuel cells
domestic CHP systems, 261
operating characteristics, 260t
PEMFC, 260–261
Domestic hot water (DHW), 260–261
Downflow system incinerator, 272f
DPM, See Decomposable plant material
Dry milling
bioethanol production, 251
flow sheet, 252f
Dry tropical ecosystems, 137
E
Earth observation satellites, 338–339
Earth Summit, 3
international forest certification schemes, 326–327
life cycle assessment, 310–311
Earthworms, 31
abundance and biomass, 123t
EC, See Electrical conductivity
Ectomycorrhiza
concentration in symbiosis, 30b
Hartig net of Konara root, 24f
ED Pathway, See Entner–Doudoroff Pathway
EFA, See Electricity Feed-in Act
EG, See Endoglucanase
EgMYB2, See Eucalyptus gunnii MYB2
Electrical conductivity (EC), 340
Electricity Feed-in Act (EFA), 370
EM Pathway, See Embden–Meyerhof Pathway
Embden–Meyerhof Pathway (EM Pathway), 244
carbohydrates anaerobic degradation, 244
Fructokinase, 244
hexose metabolism, 245f
Endo-1,4-β-D-xylanases, 237
Endoglucanase (EG), 228
CAZy database, 228
cellulase production, 86–88
enzymes, 237
GH6 Cellobiohydrolases, 234b
lignocellulosic biomass, 184
Endpoint assessment, 313
Energy balance, 315–317
Energy crop, 144
biomass production, 71
development, 73–74
woody or herbaceous biomass, 144
Energy production
from livestock wastes
using ash after combustion, 277
combustion method, 276–277
composting, 276
considerations in, 277
livestock manure compost, 276
manure-fired power plant processing, 277
using prefectures, 276
treatment of exhaust, 277
Energy-saving biomass processing
cellulose dissolution, 206
carboxylate anions, 209
cellulose interaction, 207–208
chloride-based salts, 207
energy-related devices, 206
highly polar liquids, 206–207
hydrogen-bonding characteristics, 208–209
ion selection flexibility, 207
Enterobacteriaceae, 125
Environmental change with human activities, 1–2
conference in Villach, Austria, 3
Earth Summit, 3
temperature variations, 2f
Enzymatic hydrolysis, 186–187
biomass, 251–252
cellulosic components conversion, 192
monosaccharides, 195f
rice straw, 195–196
SHF, 255
SSF, 255
EPA, See US Environment Protection Agency
aerial photography, 338
OECD agri-environmental indicators, 331t
Escherichia coli (E. coli), 250
Enterobacteriaceae, 125
strain KO11, 250
xylose catabolic enzymes, 249
Ethanol fermentation, 243
alcoholic fermentation, 244
conversion rate calculation, 265
ethanol production, 243
ethanol-producing microorganisms
bacteria, 249
yeast, 246–247
methods
fermentation process, 255
fermentation technology, 252–253
raw materials, 251
principles
ED pathway, 244–245
EM pathway, 244
pentose phosphate pathway, 245
process, 188–190
Ethanol production, 243
β-Glucosidases, 233
batch or fed-batch fermentation, 254
cellulose microfibrils, 97
costs, 191
fermentable sugars, 74–75
flocculent yeast fermentation, 254
lignocellulosic biomass, 248
oil crops, 349–350
rice straw, 323b
SSF, 255
Ethanol steam reforming reaction
C2H4 formation, 263
fixed-bed flow reactor, 264–265
hydrogen production, 262
reaction tests, 265
Ethanol-producing microorganisms
Bacteria, 249
Yeast, 246–247
1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium (C2mim), 214
1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium methylphosphonate, 216–217
1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium salts, 219
EU, See European Union
Eucalyptus gunnii MYB2 (EgMYB2), 78–79
Eucarya, 124
European Union (EU), 330
F
F5H, See Ferulate 5-hydroxylase
Family 1 carbohydrate-binding module (CBM1), 227–228
cellulose-binding domain, 230–231
FAO, See Food and Agriculture Organization
Farm machinery
for converted fields and uplands
paddy, 147–148
for low land
cropping system, 145
direct drill seeder, 147f
head-feeding, 147
pulverization of soil rate, 146–147
rice, 144–145
Farm operation
database, 152
GIS, 153
information services, 152
mathematical model, 152
Farming land management
abandoned agricultural land
municipal government in Yamagata prefecture, 334–335
environmental indicators
for agriculture, 330
Brazilian soybean, 333
changes of cropping pattern, 330
OECD agri-environmental indicators, 331t
OECD countries, 330
monitoring system
closed chamber for measuring gas emissions, 341f
field monitoring server, 342–343
gas emission, 341–342
water quality, 340
nutrient runoff from biomass production fields, 333
biofuel crop production, 333
Mississippi river basin, 334f
nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich fertilizer, 333
Switchgrass, 333–334
Farmland fertility maintenance system, 23f
Feed-in tariff (FIT), 369
Feller bunchers, 164
Felling, 161
chainsaw, 162
Fermentation
batch, 252–253
continuous-flow, 254
process, 255
CBP, 257
SHF, 255
SSF, 255
semi-continuous, 253
Ferulate 5-hydroxylase (F5H), 76–77
FID, See Flame ionized detector
Field monitoring server
biomass production, 343
field sensor network monitoring system, 343f
IT field monitoring system, 342
WSN technology, 342–343
Field sensor network monitoring system, 343f
Field servers, 342
Fire-grate furnaces, 272–273
First generation bioenergy crops, 63–64
See also Second generation bioenergy crops
See also Second generation bioenergy crops
oil crops, 67
starch crops
maize, 66
rice, 66–67
sugar crops, 64–66
energy cane, 64–65
sugar beet, 65–66
sugar cane, 64–65
sweet sorghum, 66
FIT, See Feed-in tariff
Flame ionized detector (FID), 264–265
Flat-die system, 272f
Flocculation, 254
Flocculent yeast, 254
Flow biomass, 9–10
Fluidized-bed furnace, 276–277
Fluorescent Pseudomonas, 129
FM, See Forest management
Fodder rice production
using BS
characteristics, 303
organic wastes, 302–303
carbon sequestration in rice soil, 305
CF or BS effect on, 305f
GHG emissions, 304
global agricultural field, 303
methane emissions
CF or BS effect on, 305f
in paddy fields, 304
from rice fields, 304
methane production, 304
N2O flux, 304–305
Forage rice leaf star production
with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 292
Foreground data, 312
Forest biomass, 153
fields and mountains harvesting, 153
firewood transportation by sledding, 155f
forest management prescription
afforestation, 158–159
regeneration cutting, 160
tending, 159
thinning, 159
forest planning system
Forest Management Plan, 158
nationwide forest plan, 157–158
forest road network
average yarding distance, 169
forest management infrastructure, 167
forest road regulations, 169
road network density, 169
spur road construction scene, 168f
forestry working seasonality, 160–161
Gentle Terrain, 172
harvesting technology
logging operation, 161
present-day biomass, 162
Japanese forestry situation
aging industry, 158
forestry worker accidents, 158
Japanese forests status
artificial forests, 156–157
mountain, 156
national and non-national forest, 157
resources, 157
terrain index, 156
measurement units
Denzin method, 156
SI units, 155
square-a-shorter diameter method, 155–156
Middle Terrain, 172
productivity
Forestry Agency, 171
Labor productivity, 170
TLP, 170–171
unit processes, 170
Shiba, 153
Steep Terrain, 172–173
terrain conditions, 171t
thinning or regeneration cutting, 153
wood biomass, 153
Forest certification schemes, 325
CoC, 325–326
comparison, 329t
international, 326–327
Japanese local, 328–330
PEFC, 327
Forest ecosystems
fertilizer trees, 22
forest biomass utilization, 20–21
forest productivity, 19–20
huge disturbance, 21–22
nutrient circulation of Sugi, 20f
Ohbayashabusi, 22
self-fertilization, 19–20
Forest land management
forest certification schemes, 325
CoC, 325–326
comparison, 329t
international, 326–327
Japanese local, 328–330
PEFC, 327
monitoring system
Bitterlich method, 336–337
forest plots, 340
forest resource monitoring surveys, 339–340
ground survey method, 335–337
plotless method, 336
remote sensing method, 338–339
sample plot method, 336
Stoffels method, 337
Suzuki–Essed method, 337
sustainable forest management
forest certification, 325
sustained yield, 325
Forest management (FM), 325–326
afforestation, 158–159
Forest Management Plan, 158
forest planning system, 157–158
GIS applications, 176
site index, 176
regeneration cutting, 160
tending, 159
thinning, 159
Forest resource monitoring surveys, 339–340
Forest Stewardship Council A. C. (FSC), 326–327
Forestry production
GIS, 174
Boolean operations, 174–175
geographic data management, 175
GPS positioning method, 175
site index and yarding distance, 175
spatial data, 174
information
cable logging system, 174
forest functions, 173–174
site index, 173
Fructokinase, 244
FSC, See Forest Stewardship Council A. C
FUE, See Fertilizer use efficiency
Fuel cell
See also Hydrogen production
See also Hydrogen production
commercialization requirements for reformer
long durability and reliability, 262
low cost, 261–262
PEMFC domestic systems, 261
quick startup, 262
requirements, 261
roadmap for domestic PEMFC system, 261t
conversion, 259
design and operation, 259
domestic fuel cells
domestic CHP systems, 261
operating characteristics, 260t
PEMFC, 260–261
Fuel wood system, 23f
Full-stem yarding, 161
Fungal enzymes, 233–236
Fungi, 122
clubroot, 125
abundance and biomass, 123t
D-xylose in, 245
role in cellulolytic material degradation, 229–230
D-galactose, 244
G
GAP, See Good agricultural practice
Gas chromatograph equipped with flame ionization detector (GC/FID), 341
Gas emission
adverse environmental effects, 341
atmospheric air analysis, 341–342
GC/FID, 341
NH3 emissions, 342
Gas engine-driven power generation, 275f
Gas lifted stirring system, automatic, 299
Gasification
high-calorific gas converted from biomass, 275t
internal combustion, 273
principle, 274f
suspension/external heat-type high-calorie, 274f
methanol synthesis
biomass gas, 275
exothermic reaction, 275
gas engine-driven power generation, 275f
using materials, 275–276
GBEP, See Global Bioenergy Partnership
Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS), 247
Gentle Terrain, 172
applications, 176
site index, 176
Boolean operations, 174–175
geographic data management, 175
GPS positioning method, 175
site index and yarding distance, 175
spatial data, 174
German legislative framework, 369
GH, See Glycoside hydrolase
GHGs, See Greenhouse gases
GIS, See Geographic information system
Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP), 321–322
partners and observers, 321–322
sustainability indicators, 322t
Global navigation satellite system (GNSS), 339
DGPS method, 339
precision agriculture, 148
receivers, 339
Global temperature, 1–2
Glucoamylase, 239–239
amylases, 235f
starchy raw materials, 251
Glucomannan, 236–237
D-glucose-6-phosphate, 244
ED pathway, 244–245
EM pathway, 244
D-galactose, 244
D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, 244
ED pathway, 244–245
EM pathway, 244
D-xylulose, 246
Glycoside hydrolase (GH), 228
families, 229
GH-H, 239
Glycoside transferase (GT), 228
GNSS, See Global navigation satellite system
Good agricultural practice (GAP), 286–290
GPS, See Global positioning system
Gram-negative bacteria
bacterial group, 125
ED pathway, 244–245
Gram-positive bacteria, 125
GRAS, See Generally Recognized As Safe
Gravel content, 110
Green revolution, 58
Greenhouse gases (GHGs), 1–2
agricultural field, 303
CO2, 312
emissions, 317
Ground survey method
complete enumeration method, 335–336
expansion factor, root to shoot ratio, and wood density, 338t
parameters for
forest biomass calculation, 337
plotless method, 336
Bitterlich method, 336–337
Stoffels method, 337
Suzuki–Essed method, 337
sample plot method
by non-random selection, 336
by random selection, 336
GT, See Glycoside transferase
GWP, See Global warming potential
H
H2, See Hydrogen
HAAs, See Hydroxycinnamic acid amides
Haber–Bosch process, 290
Habitats, 123
Hairy vetch (HV), 287b
apparent mineralization patterns, 287f
crop rotation effect, 292–295
flowering stage, 288t
Hansenula polymorpha (H. polymorpha), 249
Harmful sulfur compounds, 115
Harvesters, 163
bundles, 165–166
head-feeding, 149–150
Stroke-type harvester, 163f
Harvesting technology, Forest biomass
logging operation, 161
felling, 161
limbing and bucking, 161
log transportation, 161
yarding, skidding, 161
present-day biomass, 162
bundling machines, 165–166
chainsaws, 162
feller bunchers, 164
forwarders, 165
grapples, 165
harvesters, 163
helicopters, 167
mobile chippers, 166
monorails, 166–167
processors, 162
self-propelled carriages, 166
skidders, 165
swing yarders, 164
tower yarders, 164
yarders, 162
HCT, See Hydroxycinnamoyl transferase
Heavy metals, 115
Height–diameter curve, 335–336
Hemicellulases, 236–237
acetylxylan esterases, 237
α-L-Arabinofuranosidase, 237
endo-1,4-β-D-xylanases, 237
hemicellulose degradation, 237
AFEX, 190
cellulose microfibrils, 94–95
cellulosic biomass, 216–217
copolymer, 185–186
enzymes, 237
lignin, 125–126
lignocellulosic materials, 75–76
modification, 97
polysaccharides, 64
saccharification, 95–96
WO treatment, 190
Herbaceous biomass, 144
Herbaceous energy crops, 63
biomass and bioethanol production, 72t
first generation, 63–64
oil crops, 67
starch crops, 66–67
sugar crops, 64–66
research for energy crop production technology, 73–74
second generation, 64
current status of technology, 67–70
miscanthus, 70–71
rice, 73
switchgrass, 71–72
third generation, 64
Herbicide, 340
comparison
on double cropping, 362–365
single cropping, 366
Nanohana project
BDF for fuel, 361
cascading utilization, 360
city’s resource circulation cycle, 360–361
profitability analyses
Agricultural Cooperative S, 368
rapeseed cultivation, 366
single cropping, 368
subsidy for, 366–368
rapeseed cultivation
in Aito region, 361
double cropping, 362
Farmer O, 361–362
financial assistance programs, 363t
High-yield corn production, 287b
High-yielding rice, 47
direct sowing of rice, 55b
dry matter production affecting characteristics, 54t
in non-cultivation rice paddy, 46
5-HMF, See 5-hydroxymethylfurfural
Hot water treatment (HWT), 263
flow-through reactor, 191
subcritical and supercritical water, 188
HV, See Hairy vetch
Hydrogen (H2), 273
Hydrogen ion concentration (pH), 340
Hydrogen production, 262
through ethanol steam reforming
activity tests, 264–265
alumite catalyst, 263
carbon deposition in catalysts, 266f
catalyst preparation, 263–264
DSS test with PtNi2Ce2 catalyst, 267f
durability tests with Ce2Ni2 catalyst, 266f
and fuel cell system, 262f
Ni/γ-Al2O3 catalyst, 263
nickel-impregnated alumina, 262
reaction tests, 265–267
relationship, 266f
silica, 263
steam reforming of ethanol, 263
Hydrogen-bonding characteristics, 208–209
probe dyes, 209f
Hydrolysis
cellobiose, 236
enzymatic, 187–188
lignocellulosic biomass, 186–187
partial acid, 185
saccharification, 95–96
effects, 196–197
rice straw, 194
solid acid catalysts, 193–194
WO process, 190
Hydroxycinnamic acid amide (HAA), 84–85
Hydroxycinnamoyl transferase (HCT), 76–77
Hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA reductase (CCR), 76–77
5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), 188
I
I-O analyses, 312–313
IAA, See Indole-3-acetic acid
ICEs, See Internal combustion engines
ICP, See Inductively coupled plasma
ILs, See Ionic liquids
Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), 89–90
Inductively coupled plasma (ICP), 265
Inert organic matter (IOM), 119
Information systems in crop production
farm operations optimization, 152
personal digital assistant, 151–152
precision agriculture, 148
Information technology (IT), 342
Insect pests, 39
Integrated nutrient management, 286
Integration methods, 313
Internal combustion engines (ICEs), 259
International forest certification schemes
FSC, 326–327
PEFC, 327
International standards (ISO), 310–311
IOM, See Inert organic matter
chloride-based salts, 207
energy-related devices, 206
highly polar liquids, 206–207
hydrogen-bonding characteristics, 208–209
ion selection flexibility, 207
ISO, See International standards
IT, See Information technology
IT field monitoring system, 342
J
J-VER Scheme, See Offsetting Scheme
Japan Forestry Agency, 171
Japanese agricultural soils
nitrogen cycle through microbial biomass
average annual input, output and surplus, 134f
microbial biomass nitrogen, 135–136
nitrogen-supplying capacity, 133–135
Japanese biomass utilization policy, 3–5
Basic Plan for Promotion of Biomass Utilization, 5
BNS goals, 5
principles and governmental policies, 4t
promotion of biomass utilization, 3–5
Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), See Sugi
Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa), See Hinoki
Japanese local forest certification scheme, 328
Japanese paddy field
biodiversity in, 43
causes of species disappearance, 44–45
development in riverside wetlands, 43–44
invertebrate species in paddy fields, 43
life cycle of species, 44
Satochi-Satoyama, 44
sustainability, 44
ecosystems, 136–137
K
Kamlet–Taft parameters, 209
2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate, 244–245
Kluveromyces lactis (K. lactis), 248
Kluveromyces marxianus (K. marxianus), 248
Konara (Quercus serrata), 22
Kunugi (Quercus acutissima), 22
detailed map, 353f
electric energy, 354
power generation facilities, 354–356
gas and solid fuel energy, 356
amount of energy consumption and production, 357t
charcoal production, 356
forestry-based industries, 356
natural resources, 356
woody biomass, 356
issues and outlook
dissatisfaction and requests, 359
energy-related programs, 359
power generation and transmission, 359–360
using woody biomass and renewable energies, 360
localizing energy utilization, 354
location, 352f
main industries, 352
municipal strategy, 352–353
population, 352
working and activities, 353–354
Kyoto Protocol, 3
L
Labor productivity, 170
in Japan, 170
TLP, 170–171
Labor-saving, direct sowing of rice, 55b
Lactose, 251
fermentation, 251
glucose and galactose, 248
saccharides, 251
LAI, See Leaf area index
Large-scale biogas plants, 296–297
LCA, See Life cycle assessment
LCI, See Life cycle inventory
LCIA, See Life cycle impact assessment
Leaf area index (LAI), 53
changes in, 53f
CO2 concentration, 57
interception of solar radiation, 53–54
Leaf photosynthesis
capacity of, 57
reduction in rate, 57–58
Leaf Star
biomass, 62–63
gold hull phenotype, 69f
with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 292
as raw material for bioenergy, 73b
SSF process, 256b
Life cycle assessment (LCA), 310–311
on bioenergy
ecobalance, 310–311
human society, 310
criteria on biomass
carbon neutrality, 317
energy balance, 315–317
greenhouse gas emissions, 317
input and output energy, 319f
life cycle, 315
woody biomass energy, 316f
functional unit, 311
global warming, 311
interpretation, 315
LCI, 312
material and energy balance, 312
process analyses, 312–313
LCIA, 313
characterization factors, 313
procedures for conducting, 314f
and scientific framework, 315
system boundary, 311
and input–output flows, 311f
Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), 313
Life cycle inventory (LCI), 312
indicators for bioethanol
from Rice in Japan, 324t
material and energy balance, 312
process analyses, 312–313
composition alternation, 79
CAD gene expression reduction, 81
CCR down-regulation, 81–82
coniferyl alcohol radical, 82f
G lignin and S lignin structures, 80f
G unit composition enrichment, 79
G unit content role, 79
lignin digestibility, 80–81
S unit content reduction, 79–80
substrate-oxidizing site addition, 86b
targeting plant peroxidase, 82
content reduction, 75–76
COMT down-regulated alfalfa, 78
through down-regulation of genes, 76–77
4CL down-regulation in grasses, 78
5-hydroxyconiferaldehyde methylation, 78
lignification modification, 78–79
monolignols and related molecules, 77f
partial pathway model, 76f
transgenic aspen trees, 77–78
degradation enzyme production, 86
polymerization of, 83–84
acylated lignin units, 85–86
HAA synthesis, 84–85
increasing linkages, 84–85
monolignol analogs, 84f
monolignols radicalization, 83f
sinapyl alcohol polymerizing activities, 87f
THT reaction, 85f
precursors, 76–77
Lignin–carbohydrate complex (LCC), 190
Lignocarbohydrate complex (LCC), 75–76
Lignocellulosic biomass, 181–182
biofuels production, 182
chemical composition, 183t
composition and structure, 184f
cellulose, 185
extractives, 184–185
Hemicellulose, 185–186
Lignin, 186
plant cell walls, 184
Starch, 185
xylans, 186
photosynthesis, 182–184
pretreatment, 186–187
AFEX, 190
bioconversion process, 187
bioethanol production costs, 191
cooking process, 192
dilute sulfuric acid-based chemical pretreatment, 188–190
downstream processing, 187–188
effects, 189t
hot water treatment, 188
physical pretreatment methods, 188
polysaccharides, 187
primary routes, 186–187
uncatalyzed steam explosion, 188
WO process, 190
xylose monomer, 191
saccharification
rice straw pretreatment, 193–194
solid acid catalysts, 192
substances, 323b
sugar building block, 182
Limbing, 161
Line thinning, 160
Livestock manure compost, 276–276
Local resource recycling system, 349–350
Log transportation, 161
M
M&T, See Mori group & Taguchi
Maize (Zea mays L.), 66
Manure application
effects on Biota, 33
insect pests, 39
microorganisms and protozoa, 33–36
soil macrofauna, 39
soil mesofauna, 38
soil nematodes, 36
Manure-fired power plant processing, 277
Masonite process, 188
MCT, See Mercury cadmium telluride
Mechanical thinning
line thinning or zone thinning, 160
thinning ratio, 160
Mega dairy farms, 302
Melle–Boinot Method, 253f
bioethanol production, 253–254
broth fermentation, 253
Mercury cadmium telluride (MCT), 341–342
Methane (CH4), 273
Methane emissions
CF or BS effect on, 305f
in paddy fields, 304
from rice fields, 304
Methane fermentation
using ADS in Japan, 301–302
equipment
M&T methane fermentation plant, 299
mechanisms, 297–298
P-works methane fermentation plant, 301
single-tank system for, 299
in Europe
development of natural energies, 297
Germany, 296
large-scale biogas plants, 296–297
renewable energy, 296
European countries, 296
fossil fuels, 296
in Japan
for economic reasons, 297
Fukusima First Nuclear Power Station, 297
number of biogas plants, 298t
plants, 297
production, 304
renewable energy from biomass disposal, 296
slurry injectors, 302f
Methanesulfonate (MeSO3), 214
Methanol synthesis
biomass gas, 275
exothermic reaction, 275
gas engine-driven power generation, 275f
using materials, 275–276
4-O-methylglucuronoxylan, 236–237
Methylsulfate (MeOSO3), 214
5-methyl-1,2,4-triazolo{3,4-b}benzothiazole, See Tricyclazole
Microbial functions, soil microorganisms
anaerobic respiration
organic materials by, 126–127
strictly anaerobic bacteria, 127
decomposition, 125–126
free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria isolation, 130t
nitrification, 127–128
nitrogen fixation, 128
affected by parameters, 128–129
potential under land uses, 129t
in terrestrial regions, 128
plant growth-promoting microorganisms, 129
Microorganisms
nutrient supply and cycling, 40
nitrogen fixation, 40–41
nutrients as organic matter, 41–42
Photoplankton effect, 41
and protozoa, 33–34
bacterial nitrogen, 34
CFUs, 35f
ciliate and flagellate species proliferation, 34
fungus biomass effect, 34
soil flagellates, 36f
substrate through fertilization, 35–36
Middle Terrain, 172
Midpoint assessment, 313
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery (MAFF), 10
Miscanthus (Miscanthus spp.), 70
in Europe, 70
Miscanthus x giganteus, 70
cultivation and breeding, 71
“Illinois” clone, 71
Miscanthus sacchariflorus (M. sacchariflorus), 70
Miscanthus sinensis (M. sinensis), 70
Miscanthus spp, See Miscanthus
Miscanthus x giganteus, 70
cultivation and breeding, 71
“Illinois” clone, 71
Mississippi-Atchafalaya River Basin, 333
Miyazaki prefecture, 276
Molecular breeding for tailoring lignocellulose, 95
fitting Saccharification
cellulose microfibrils, 97
gene expression, 96–97
hemicellulose, 97
lignin, 97–98
woody biomass
bioethanol production, 95
biomasses chemical composition, 96t
saccharification, 95–96
Monitoring system
for farm management
field monitoring server, 342–343
gas emission, 341–342
water quality, 340
for forest management
Bitterlich method, 336–337
forest plots, 340
forest resource monitoring surveys, 339–340
ground survey method, 335–337
plotless method, 336
remote sensing method, 338–339
sample plot method, 336
Stoffels method, 337
Suzuki–Essed method, 337
Monolignols, 77f
analogs, 84f
radicalization of, 83f
Monorails, 166–167
Monsi and Saeki equation, 55
Mori group & Taguchi (M&T), 299
methane fermentation plant, 299
automatic biogas stirring system, 300f
experimental flow, 299f
features, 299
specification, 300t
Most probable number (MPN), 34
MPN, See Most probable number
MTSAT Satellite-based Augmentation System (MSAS), 339
Mucor, 125
Multi-stage methanol synthesis system, 275f
N
N2O flux, 304–305
Nanohana project
BDF for fuel, 361
cascading utilization, 360
city’s resource circulation cycle, 360–361
Near-infrared light (NIR light), 338–339
Nematodes
abundance and biomass, 123t
densities in soils, 124f
individuals in treatment plot, 123b
populations in soils, 123b
Net primary production (NPP), 9–10
NH3 emissions, 342
Ni/γ-Al2O3 catalyst, 263
Nickel-impregnated alumina, 262
NIR light, See Near-infrared light
NiSiAl catalyst, 265
Nitrification
aerobic, 128
ammonium to nitrate, 133
energy-generating process, 127–128
nitrogen microbial transformation, 303
Nitrogen cycles
average annual input, output and surplus, 134f
in Japanese agricultural soils
microbial biomass nitrogen, 135–136
nitrogen-supplying capacity, 133–135
through microbial biomass
in ecosystems, 133
organic nitrogen, 132–133
in soils, 132f
Nitrogen fixation, 128
affected by parameters, 128–129
free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria isolation, 130t
potential under land uses, 129t
in terrestrial regions, 128
Nitrogen metabolism, 42
Nitrogen supply test, 287b
Nitrogen turnover, 138
cyanobacteria, 128
endophytic, 128
leaf star production, 292
Non-edible plant parts, 52
Non-leguminous plants, 128
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NVDI), 338–339
Novel pretreatment process, 193–194
Novel solid acid catalysts, 198–199
NPP, See Net primary production
Nutrient balance improvement
AGB grain yield and nitrogen uptake, 289t
dry matter production and nitrogen concentration, 288t
good agricultural practice, 286–290
incorporated green manure, 287f
integrated nutrient management, 286
Nutrient cycling
applied to crop fields
in Germany and France, 283
large-scale agricultural activities, 282–283
nitrogen loading to watershed, 283t
soil surface nitrogen balance estimation, 282t
water pollution, 283–284
bioenergy production and nutrients, 280f
environmental conservation
crop for fertilizer application, 285
intensive agriculture, 284–285
sound crop production, 285f
food products and bioenergy, 280
nutrient balance improvement
AGB grain yield and nitrogen uptake, 289t
dry matter production and nitrogen concentration, 288t
good agricultural practice, 286–290
incorporated green manure, 287f
integrated nutrient management, 286
reasonable pathway
eco-friendly agriculture, 282
fertilizer use efficiency, 281
for livestock, 281
mass balance, 281
pattern diagram, 281f
NVDI, See Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
O
Offsetting Scheme, 28
Ohbayashabusi (Alnus sieboldiana), 22
Oil crops
BDF, 349–350
energy conversion technologies, 63–64
rapeseed, 67
OP/FT-IR spectrometry, See Open-path Fourier transform infrared spectrometry
Open-path Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (OP/FT-IR spectrometry), 341–342
decomposition, 125–126
degradation, 126–127
long-term applications, 136
on microbial biomass nitrogen
nitrogen turnover, 138
to soils, 137–138
nematode densities in soils amended with, 124f
nitrogen cycle through microbial biomass
inorganic nitrogen, 139
NO3-N leaching and nitrogen uptake, 139
under upland soil conditions, 138–139
organic residue additions, 304
sugar cane and energy sugar cane, 64
Organic wastes
biogas plants, 302–303
biomass resources, 8
fallen leaves, 27–28
recycling, 3–5
Oryza sativa L, See Rice
Oxidized soil layer, 42–43
P
P-works methane fermentation plant, 301
experimental outlook, 301f
features, 301t
retention time of tank process, 302t
specification, 300t
tank temperature, 301
Paddy field ecosystems, 39–40
abandoned paddy fields, 45–46
in mountainous and hilly areas, 45f
in residential or business areas, 46f
biodiversity in Japan, 43
causes of species disappearance, 44–45
development in riverside wetlands, 43–44
invertebrate species in paddy fields, 43
life cycle of species, 44
Satochi-Satoyama landscape, 44
sustainability, 44
increasing non-cultivation, 45–46
in mountainous and hilly areas, 45f
in residential or business areas, 46f
mineral nutrition balance, 41t
rice production
injury by continuous cropping, 42–43
irrigation water, nutrient supply by, 40
microorganisms, nutrient supply and cycling by, 40–42
nitrogen metabolism during flooding season, 42
water quality comparison, 40t
WCS, 46
high-yielding rice production, 47
production, 46
rice cropping for, 47
subjects of, 47
Paddy field soil, 128
Paddy rice
CH4 emissions, 304
nitrogen-fixing potential, 41
paddy–upland rotation, 29
soil-borne plant pathogens, 129–131
Paddy soils
mineral nutrients, 40
nitrogen fixation, 128
nutrients for rice plants in, 41–42
rice, 42
RothC modification for
decomposition rate, 120
IOM pool, 120
SOC content, 120
PAL, See Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase
Panicum virgatum L, See Switchgrass
PEMFC, See Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell
Pentose phosphate pathway, 245
D-xylose conversion, 245
D-Xylulose, 246
xylose metabolism pathway, 247f
Pentose-fermenting yeast, 248
hansenula polymorpha, 249
pichia stipitis, 248–249
Periodicity, annual, 89
Peroxidases, 82
lignin composition, 82
lignin polymerization, 83–84
monolignols, 79
white-rot fungi, 86
Personal digital assistant
cell phones, 151–152
using Field Server, 152
Pesticide, 340
drier paddy soils, 44–45
OECD agri-environmental indicators, 331t
rice cultivation practices, 47
PGPF, See Plant growth-promoting fungi
PGPR, See Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
pH, See Hydrogen ion concentration
Phanerochaete chrysosporium, See White-rot fungus
Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), 76–77
Photosynthesis, 182–184
atmospheric CO2, 9–10
biomass, 181–182
carbon neutrality, 317
cyanobacteria, 128
efficiency of crop, 54–55
CO2 diffusion into canopy, 57
individual leaf photosynthesis rates, 57–58
light energy in plant tissues, 270
nitrogen absorption, 292
plant dry matter, 52–53
plants grow by, 7
rate in fully expanded young leaves, 62
relationships, 61f
Pichia stipitis (P. stipitis), 248–249
Pinus taeda MYB4 (PtMYB4), 78–79
PL, See Polysaccharide lyase
Plant growth-promoting fungi (PGPF), 129
Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), 129
Plant molecular breeding, 74
cell wall degradation enzyme production
cellulase production in plants, 86–88
lignin degradation enzyme production, 86
energy crop transformation, 75
lignin composition alternation, 79
CAD gene expression reduction, 81
CCR down-regulation, 81–82
coniferyl alcohol radical, 82f
G lignin and S lignin structures, 80f
G unit composition enrichment, 79
G unit content role, 79
lignin digestibility, 80–81
S unit content reduction, 79–80
substrate-oxidizing site addition, 86b
targeting plant peroxidase, 82
lignin content reduction, 75–76
COMT down-regulated alfalfa, 78
through down-regulation of genes, 76–77
4CL down-regulation in grasses, 78
5-hydroxyconiferaldehyde methylation, 78
lignification modification, 78–79
monolignols and related molecules, 77f
partial pathway model, 76f
transgenic aspen trees, 77–78
plant material development, 75
projects of fermentable sugars, 74–75
Plants, 7
bioethanol, 65
biomass, 7
C3 and C4 plants, 57
cellulase production in, 86–88
CH4 flux, 341
COMT down-regulated alfalfa plants, 78
free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 130t
with high productivity, 58
inorganic components, 33–34
isoamylase and pullulanase, 239
large-scale methane fermentation, 296
nitrogen fixation, 40–41
organic materials, 19–20
paddy field, 43
rice direct seeded with AAD, 55b
using Satoyama, 25
soil, 9
soil fertility, 108
using solar energy, 182
store light energy in plant tissues, 270
transgenic tobacco plants, 84–85
woody, 93–94
WT plants, 86–88
Plotless method, 336
Bitterlich method, 336–337
Stoffels method, 337
Suzuki–Essed method, 337
Polar ILs
See also Ionic liquids (ILs)
See also Ionic liquids (ILs)
alkylimidazolium salts, 209
carboxylate
anions, 209
salts, 211
viscosity, 212f
cellulose extraction, 217–221
acid esters, 214
alkyl phosphonate and alkyl phosphite, 214
C2mim-type ILs, 216t
chloride salts, 215
hydrogen-bonding basicity, 215–216
one-pot reaction, 214
tertiary amines and alkyl esters, 214
imidazolium salts, 211
novel formate salts, 212t
alkylphosphonate salts structure, 217f
cations and anions, 217
cellulosic biomass, 216–217
requirement
1,3-dialkylimidazolium carboxylates, 213
1,3-dialkylimidazolium chloride salts, 213
halide and carboxylate salts, 213f
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), 260–261
domestic CHP systems, 261
fuel cell stack, 260
operating characteristics, 260t
Polysaccharide lyase (PL), 228–228
Populus tremuloides Michx, See Transgenic aspen
Pore widening treatment (PWT), 263
Power take-off (PTO), 154b
Precision agriculture, 148
comprehensive trials
regional commutation tool, 151
GPS, 148
in Japan, 149
yield monitoring system
detecting signals, 149–150
soil sensor, 149
Pretreatment
AFEX, 190
bioethanol production costs, 191
Brönsted acid catalyst, 197–198
cooking process, 192
dilute sulfuric acid-based chemical pretreatment, 188–190
Amberlyst 35 dry catalyst, 197t
catalysts, 196
pretreatment temperature, 194–195
SA-J1 catalyst, 195t
SEM, 195–196
hydrolysis mechanism
sulfonated mesoporous silica-based solid acid catalyst, 202f
water-soluble oligosaccharides, 200–202
lignocellulosic biomass, 186–187
bioconversion process, 187
downstream processing, 187–188
hot water treatment, 188
physical pretreatment methods, 188
polysaccharides, 187
primary routes, 186–187
uncatalyzed steam explosion, 188
novel solid acid catalysts, 198–199
rice straw, 193–194
by-products, 194
enzymatic saccharification, 194
hydrothermal pretreatment, 194
novel pretreatment process, 193–194
saccharification
catalytic characteristics, 199
liquefaction rate, 199–200
monosaccharides, 200
sulfonated carbon materials, 198
WO process, 190
xylose monomer, 191
Procurement cost
feedstock, 9
higher and lower, 16–17
production cost, 16
Production Cost of Rapeseed and Buckwheat, 366–368
Productivity
biomass production in, 330
in cold climates, 70
and environmental impacts
soil fertility, 131–132
soil microbes, 132
forestry agency, 171
labor productivity, 170
self-fertilization, 19–20
soil, 108
TLP, 170–171
unit processes, 170
Program for Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), 325
comparison, 329t
forest certification schemes, 326–327
SFM and FAO, 327
Proteobacteria, 125
α-, β- and γ, 126–127
molecular methods, 125
Protozoa
abundance and biomass, 123t
heterotrophic and autotrophic species, 33
microorganisms and, 33–34
bacterial nitrogen, 34
CFUs, 35f
ciliate and flagellate species proliferation, 34
fungus biomass effect, 34
soil flagellates, 36f
substrate through fertilization, 35–36
micropores, 123
soil microbes, 133
Pruning, 159
annual working schedule, 160–161
tending, 159
Pseudomonas, 125
fluorescent, 129
free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 130t
soil bacteria, 126t
PtMYB4, See Pinus taeda MYB4
PTO, See Power take-off
Puddling, 39–40
PWT, See Pore widening treatment
Pyruvate, 244
corynebacterium glutamicum, 250
ED pathway, 244–245
zymomonas mobilis genes, 250
Q
Qualitative thinning, 160
Quantitative thinning, 160
Quercus acutissima, See Kunugi
Quercus serrata, See Konara
R
R2R3-MYB transcription factors, 78–79
Rainfall
cambial activity, 89–90
input data, 119–120
rain gages and water quantity, 340
surface soils, 136
Rapeseed cultivation
in Aito region, 361
changes in profit, 367t
comparison, 362
double cropping, 362
economic viability, 368–369
Farmer O, 361–362
financial assistance programs, 363t
under financial assistance programs, 363t
sales revenue for, 366–368
single cropping, 368
Raw materials, ethanol fermentation
biofuel crops, 63
biomass resources, 8
lignocellulosic biomass
agricultural residues, 251
ethanol production, 251–252
saccharides
lactose, 251
starch-based raw materials, 251
starch
α-amylase, 251
dry milling, 251
Reaction tests, hydrogen production, 265–267
Red pine (Pinus densiflora), See Akamatu
Reduced soil layer, 42–43
Reduced tillage (RT), 31–32
arthropods, 39
in cultivated fields, 38
phytophagous insect pests, 39
prey and predator in, 33f
soil surface, 32
Reformer, commercialization requirements for, 261
long durability and reliability, 262
low cost, 261–262
PEMFC domestic systems, 261
quick startup, 262
roadmap for domestic PEMFC system, 261t
Regeneration cutting
clear cutting, 160
Japanese labor productivity, 171
shelter wood cutting, 160
Remote sensing method
aerial photography, 338
GPS, 339
satellite, 338–339
Renewable energy, 296–297
biofuel, 8–9
EFA, 370
using fossil fuels, 296
Renewable Energy Law in China, 69
Renewable Energy Road Map in EU, 68–69
in Sweden, 296
Resistant plant material (RPM), 119
Rhizopus, 125
Rice (Oryza sativa L.), 66
biomass production, 62
CO2 diffusion, 62–63
leaf photosynthesis reduced rates, 62
light-intercepting characteristics, 62
lodging resistance, 62–63
photosynthesis rate in fully expanded young leaves, 62
cultivation and breeding
in China, 66
in Japan, 66–67
high biomass production, 73
improved commercial rice characteristics, 58–59
comparisons, 59f
observations, 58–59
as potential plant in Japan, 58
self-sufficient feed supply, 73
Takanari characteristics, 59
accumulated nitrogen comparison, 60f
leaf nitrogen levels, 60
photosynthesis rate and leaf nitrogen, 61f
water potential of flag leaf, 61
Rice paddy soil, 42
Rice straw pretreatment, 193–194
Brönsted acid catalyst, 197–198
Amberlyst 35 dry catalyst, 197t
catalysts, 196
pretreatment temperature, 194–195
SA-J1 catalyst, 195t
SEM, 195–196
hydrolysis mechanism
sulfonated mesoporous silica-based solid acid catalyst, 202f
water-soluble oligosaccharides, 200–202
novel solid acid catalysts, 198–199
saccharification
catalytic characteristics, 199
liquefaction rate, 199–200
monosaccharides, 200
using solid acid catalysts
by-products, 194
enzymatic saccharification, 194
hydrothermal pretreatment, 194
novel pretreatment process, 193–194
sulfonated carbon materials, 198
Rothamsted Carbon model (RothC model), 119
DPM/RPM ratio, 119
input data, 119–120
modification
for Andosols and paddy soils, 120
application, 120–122
PC software to run, 120
soil organic carbon sequestration change
estimation, 121f
prediction, 121b
SOM turnover models, 119
RothC model, See Rothamsted Carbon model
RPM, See Resistant plant material
RT, See Reduced tillage
S
S-adenosyl-methionine caffeoyl-CoA/5-hydroxyferuloyl-CoA O-methyltransferase (CCoAOMT), 76–77
SA, See Selective availability
Saccharification, 181–182
efficiency of, 95–96
energy crops, 75
lignocellulosic biomass
cellulose to glucose, 198
hydrolysis mechanism, 200–202
novel solid acid catalysts, 198–199
rice straw, 199–200
using solid acid catalysts, 197–198
lignocellulosic materials, 74–75
microbial lignin degradation enzymes, 86
modification of hemicellulose, 97
pretreatments, 75–76
rice straw pretreatment, 193–194
SHF process, 255
advantages and disadvantages, 192
homogeneous acids, 192–193
Saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF), 257
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae), 246–247
beneficial characteristics, 247
bioethanol production from rice straw, 323b
native strains, 248
Saccharum officinarum, See Sugar cane
SAD, See Sinapyl alcohol dehydrogenase
Safeguard subjects, 313
Salt content, 115
by non-random selection, 336
by random selection, 336
Satochi-Satoyama landscape, 44
Satoyama systems, 22
crisis of, 25
Ectomycorrhiza’s Hartig net of Konara root, 24f
and farmland fertility, 24–25
land-use pattern in, 25f
nutrient amounts, 26f
San-tomi area, 25
farmland fertility maintenance system, 23f
fuel wood system of, 23f
harvesting wood and coppicing, 22
nutrient acquisition strategy, 24
trees growing in secondary natural environment, 22
Schizosaccharomyces pombe (S. pombe), 248
Second generation, herbaceous energy crops, 64
current status of technology
in China, 69
in EU, 68–69
in Japan, 69–70
miscanthus, 70–71
rice, 73
switchgrass, 71–72
Seed-shooting seeder
direct seeding methods, 154b
Seeding, 145–146
air-assisted strip, 154b
direct, 66
seed-shooting seeder, 145–146
seeders designed for, 146–147
in Japan, 55b
types of seeders for, 148
Selective availability (SA), 175
change in composition, 197t
using solid acid catalysts, 157
Self-fertilization, 19–20
Self-propelled carriages, 166
SEM, See Scanning electron microscope
ethanol fermentation
advantages, 254
flocculent yeast, 254
Melle–Boinot method, 253f
bioethanol production, 253–254
broth fermentation, 253
Separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF), 255
CBP, 257
enzymatic hydrolyses, 255
SSF, 255
SF, See Sunflower
SFM, See Sustainable forest management
SGEC, See Sustainable Green Ecosystem Council
SHF, See Separate hydrolysis and fermentation
Shiba, 153
Short-stem yarding, 161
Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), 255
ammonia and ionic liquid treatment, 323b
enzymatic hydrolysis, 255
hexoses and pentoses, 257
Sinapyl alcohol polymerizing activities, 87f
Single-tank system, 299
M&T methane fermentation plant, 299
automatic biogas stirring system, 300f
experimental flow, 299f
features, 299
specification, 300t
P-works methane fermentation plant, 301
experimental outlook, 301f
features, 301t
retention time of tank process, 302t
specification, 300t
tank temperature, 301
Site index, 173
comparison, 177
environmental factors, 173
GIS, 175
Japanese cedar, 176
tree height, 173
Skidders, 165
Snow-break preservation, 159
SOC, See Soil organic carbon
Soft carbohydrates, 323b
Soil capacity classifications, 108–109
Soil fauna, 31
no tillage or reduced tillage, 32
protozoa, 33
regulators of decomposition, 133
in upland ecosystems, 31–32
Soil fertility, 108
agro-ecosystem, 108
capability classification, factors affecting, 109
rating of dependent factors, 115t
improvement, 117
microbially mediated
future prospects, 139–140
management of microbial biomass nitrogen, 136–139
nitrogen cycles through microbial biomass, 132–136
productivity and environmental impacts, 131–132
productive capability class expression, 117
soil potential productivity, 108
capacity classifications, 109
classification, 108–109
Soil macro-arthropods, 39
Soil macrofauna
chemical fertilizer application, 39
phytophagous insect pests, 39
soil macro-arthropods, 39
Soil management
carbon dynamics
on Earth scale, 118
factors in
SOC decomposition rate, 118–119
RothC model
application of modification, 120–122
DPM/RPM ratio, 119
input data, 119–120
modification for Andosols and paddy soils, 120
PC software to run, 120
SOM turnover models, 119
Soil mesofauna, 38–39
bacteria and fungi, 122
decomposition of organic materials, 125–126
micropores with diameters, 123
nitrogen pool for, 139
Soil microbial biomass nitrogen, 135
during crop growth period
drying–rewetting effect on, 136–137
organic materials application effect, 137–139
nitrogen cycle
inorganic nitrogen, 139
NO3-N leaching and nitrogen uptake, 139
under upland soil conditions, 138–139
Soil microorganisms, 122
habitats, 123
microbial functions
anaerobic respiration, 126b–127b
decomposition, 125–126
nitrification, 127b–128b
nitrogen fixation, 128b–129b
plant growth-promoting microorganisms, 129
organic supplement effects
nematode densities in soils, 124f
on nematode populations, 123b
soil sickness due to continuous cropping, 129–131
taxonomy
diverse bacteria, 125
Gram-negative bacteria, 125
molecular, 124
species of fungi, 125
Soil nematodes, 36
individuals in each treatment, 37t
relationship with plant parasite species, 38f
soil environment for, 36
Soil organic carbon (SOC), 118
changes in Andosols and paddy soils, 120
clayey soil, 119
decomposition rate, 118–119
sequestration change
estimation, 121f
using RothC model, 121b
Soil organic matter (SOM), 118
carbon dynamics on Earth scale, 118
factors in SOC decomposition rate, 118–119
RothC model
application of modification, 120–122
DPM/RPM ratio, 119
input data, 119–120
modification for Andosols and paddy soils, 120
PC software to run, 120
SOM turnover models, 119
Soil potential productivity, 108
capacity classifications, 109
classification, 108–109
expression, 117
improvement, 117
standard and dependent factors, 109
rating of dependent factors, 115t
Soil texture, 110–111
combination, 111
N2O flux, 304–305
site index, 176
advantages and disadvantages, 192
homogeneous acids, 192–193
hydrothermal pretreatment, 196–197
lignocellulosic biomass saccharification
cellulose to glucose, 198
hydrolysis mechanism, 200–202
novel solid acid catalysts, 198–199
rice straw, 199–200
using solid acid catalysts, 197–198
rice straw hydrolysis mechanism on, 200–202
rice straw pretreatment
by-products, 194
chemical species, 194
hydrothermal pretreatment, 194
novel pretreatment process, 193–194
Solid fuel energy, 356
amount of energy consumption and production, 357t
charcoal production, 356
forestry-based industries, 356
natural resources, 356
woody biomass, 356
SOM, See Soil organic matter
Sophorose, 236
Sorghum bicolor L, See Sweet sorghum
Soybean production
in Brazil, 333
with manure compost, 292
organic manure inhibitory effect, 293t
Spiegel relascope, 337
Square-a-shorter diameter method, 155–156
SS, See Suspended solids
SSCF, See Saccharification and co-fermentation
amylases, 237–239
annual crop plants, 52
bioethanol, 251
composition, 256t
crops, 63–64
biofuels production, 182
maize, 66
rice, 66–67
starch-based biofuels, 333
starchy raw materials, 251
sugar, 182
Steep Terrain, 172–173
Stoffels method, 337
Stoker furnace, 276–277
Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.), 65–66
continuous cropping, 129–131
first-generation energy crops, 70
saccharification efficiencies, 75
Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), 64
cultivation and breeding
Brazil, 64–65
In Japan, 65
monster cane, 65f
plant height of, 64
Sugar crops, 63–64
sugar beet, 65–66
sugar cane, 64–65
sweet sorghum, 66
domestic timber, 158
leaves and branches, 21
nutrient circulation of, 20f
Satoyama forests, 27
Sunflower (SF), 287b
herbaceous biomass, 144
incorporated green manure, 287f
Surface runoff management, 340
Surface soils, 136
digested slurry, 302
inorganic nitrogen, 139
in Konara secondary forests, 26f
oxygen, 42
Suspended solids (SS), 340
Suspension/external heat-type high-calorie gasification system, 274f
Sustainability indicators, 322t
for bioenergy
using attributes, 320–321
determination, 321
by global bioenergy partnership, 321–322
large-scale biomass production, 317–320
social, economic, and ecological factors, 320–321
GBEP, 321–322
Sustainable forest management (SFM), 328
forest certification, 325
PEFC, 327
sustained yield, 325
Sustainable Green Ecosystem Council (SGEC), 328–330
comparison, 329t
procedure, 328–330
Sustained yield, 325
Suzuki–Essed method, 337
Sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), 66
chemical composition, 183t
in China, 69
energy conversion technologies, 63–64
liquid methanol fuel, 275–276
breeding of, 72
chemical composition, 183t
Pv4CL1 encodes 4CL in, 78
QTL analysis, 72
reproduction, 72
System boundary, 311
input–output flows, 311f
interpretation, 315
LCA, 312
T
TCD, See Thermal conductivity detector
Technological innovation
in biology and bioengineering, 17
in conversion process, 16–17
WCS and high-yielding rice production, 47
Tending, 159
cleaning cutting, 159
climber cutting, 159
pruning, 159
snow-break preservation, 159
tree growth stimulation, 159
weeding, 159
TGA, See Thermogravimetric analysis
Thermal conductivity detector (TCD), 264–265
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), 217
extracted materials, 217–218
measurements, 221
stable supercool liquids, 219
Thermophilic bacteria, 249–250
Thinning, 159
from above, 159
from all stories, 160
from below, 160
forest density, 159
mechanical, 160
qualitative, 160
quantitative, 160
TLP, See Total labor productivity
Topsoil, 109
degree of erosion, 117
nutrients in, 114
thickness, 109t
uniform application, 42
Total labor productivity (TLP), 170–171
Tower yarders, 164
Transgenic aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), 77–78
Tree breeding
lignocellulose, 94–95
targets in secondary xylem cells, 93–94
wood production in world, 94f
on wood quality, 92–93
woody biomass, 94
Tree growth stimulation, 159
Trichoderma reesei (T. reesei), 228
Cel6A and Cel7A subsite structures, 232f
cellulases, 231f
cellulolytic enzymes, 229
cellulose fiber, 230–231
GH6 CBH, 230
Tricyclazole, 340
Two-stage methane fermentation process, 297–298
TYDC, See Tyrosine decarboxylase
Tyramine N-(hydroxycinnamoyl) transferase (THT), 84–85
Tyrosine decarboxylase (TYDC), 84–85
U
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 3
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 3
Upland fields
detritus food web in, 32
detritus cycle, 32
fertilization influence, 32
prey and predator individuals, 33f
manure application effects on Biota, 33
insect pests, 39
microorganisms and protozoa, 33–36
soil macrofauna, 39
soil mesofauna, 38
soil nematodes, 36
volcanic soils, 134–135
Upland rice straw (UR straw), 287b
US Department of Agriculture (USDA), 67
US Department of Energy (USDOE), 67
US Environment Protection Agency (EPA), 1–2
USDA, See US Department of Agriculture
USDOE, See US Department of Energy
W
Water stick, 44
WCS, See Whole crop silage
Weeding, 159
Well-managed forest, 325
Wet oxidation process (WO process), 190
White-rot fungus (Phanerochaete chrysosporium), 86
Whole crop silage (WCS), 46
high-yielding rice production, 47
production, 46
rice cropping for, 47
self-efficiency in livestock feed, 73
subjects of, 47
Whole-tree yarding, 161
Wild-type plants (WT plants), 86–88
Wireless sensor network (WSN), 342–343
WO process, See Wet oxidation process
Wood formation
annual periodicity, 89
cambial dormancy, 89
cambial reactivation, 89–90
carbon sink, 88
Wood pellets, 318b
biomass resources, 8
forestry waste, 350–351
LCA, 311
patterns of biomass utilization, 350
Woody biomass improvement, 88
molecular breeding for tailoring lignocellulose, 95
tree breeding on wood quality, 92–93
wood and cell formation, 88
WSN, See Wireless sensor network
WT plants, See Wild-type plants
X
X-ray diffraction (XRD), 198–199
X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS), 198–199
Xylem cells, 90
Xyloglucan, 236–237
D-xylose conversion, 245
D-xylulose, 246
pentose phosphate pathway, 245
D-ribulose-5-phosphate, 246
Y
Yarders, 162
self-propelled carriages, 166
swing, 164
tower, 164
Yarding
cable logging system, 177
full-stem, 161
helicopter, 168f
short-stem, 161
skidding, 161
whole-tree, 161
Yeast
cell recycling, 254
ethanol fermentation
ethanol production, 254
using flocculent yeast reduces, 254
H. polymorpha, 249
K. lactis, 248
K. marxianus, 248
P. stipitis, 248–249
pentose-fermenting yeast, 248
S. cerevisiae, 246–247
S. pombe, 248
Yield monitoring system
detecting signals, 149–150
soil sensor, 149
Yield of plant biomass (BY), 52–53
Z
Zea mays L, See Maize
Zone thinning, See Line thinning
Zymobacter palmae (Z. palmae), 249
Zymomonas mobilis (Z. mobilis), 249–250
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