C
CALL BACK, CALLBACK
Call back is two words when used as a verb.
Example: I need to call back two of the top candidates for the position.
Callback is one word when used as a noun or adjective.
Example: After the audition, Chaital hoped for a callback.
CALL OUT, CALLOUT
Call out is two words when used as a verb.
Example: You should call out the processes in the diagram.
Callout is one word when used as a noun or adjective.
Example: The illustration had a callout created as a text box.
CALLOUTS
Callouts are text labels in an illustration that point out specific items that should be noticed by the reader. (See Figure 2.1.) Consider the following tips for using callouts:
Callouts should have the first letter capitalized.
Do not capitalize callouts that start with an ellipsis (…).
If the callout is a complete sentence, end it with a period.
Avoid a group of callouts for a single illustration where some are complete sentences and others are sentence fragments.
Make all the callouts consistent grammatically for a single illustration.
Figure 2.1 Illustration with Callouts
CAME BY
Came by is a colloquial phrase and should be avoided in business writing.
Incorrect: He came by to see me.
Correct: He came to see me.
CAN, MAY
Use can to indicate capability.
Example: Can you read the bottom line on the eye chart?
Example: Yes, I can read it.
Use may to indicate possibility or when asking for permission.
Example: It may rain today.
CANNOT
Cannot is one word.
Incorrect: We can not make it to the performance.
Correct: We cannot make it to the performance.
CAN’T SEEM
Seem is a verb that means look or appear. Using can’t with seem is awkward.
Incorrect: I can’t seem to make the journey in an hour.
Correct: It seems impossible for me to make the journey in one hour.
CANVAS, CANVASS
A canvas is a noun that means a heavy cloth that is, for example, stretched on a wood frame for painting or used to cover the floor of a boxing ring.
Example: The artist applied paint to the canvas.
Example: After the devastating punch, the unconscious boxer fell to the canvas.
Canvass is a verb meaning to survey.
Example: We went door-to-door to canvass voters.
CAPITAL LETTERS
Capital letters are used at the beginning of a sentence or for a proper noun. Capital letters are also called upper case. See Capitalization.
CAPITAL, CAPITOL
Capital can be a noun or an adjective. Capital:
Can be the seat of government for a state or country.
Can be an uppercase letter.
Can be money or property owned by a business.
Can be the top part of an architectural column.
Can also mean “punishable by death.”
Example: Murder is a capital offense.
Capital, as an adjective, means principal or chief.
Example: It was the capital idea of the conference.
Capitol is the building where the U.S. Congress meets. It is capitalized when it refers to the U.S. Capitol. It is not capitalized when it refers to the main government building for a U.S. state.
Capitalization
Proper nouns that denote the names of specific persons or places are capitalized, though names that are common to a group are not. Consider the following capitalization guidelines:
Acts of Congress
Civil Rights Act
Taft-Hartley Act
Eighteenth Amendment
Associations
Society of Professional Engineers
American Business Association
Young Women’s Christian Association
American Heart Association
Book Titles and Their Subdivisions
The American Way, Chapter VI
Remembrance of Things Past, Volume 11
Bulletins and Periodical Titles
Wall Street Journal
Railroad Cars and Automobile Models
Car 54, Train 93
Plymouth
Cadillac
Churches and Church Dignitaries
Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church
the Archbishop of New York
Bishop John Barnes
Cities
Jefferson City, Missouri
Los Angeles
Clubs
Leon Book Club
The Do-Gooders
Union League Club
But: many Republican clubs in the West
Legal Codes
the Code of Building Maintenance
But: the building code
Code VI
Compass Points Designating a Specific Region
the Northeast [section of the country]
the Pacific Northwest
But: just drive north
the West
But: west of town
Constitutions
the Constitution of Texas
the Constitution of the United States
But: the constitution of any nation
Corporations
American Brake Corporation
Container Corporation of America
But: The corporation was dissolved.
Courts
the Criminal Court of Appeals
But: a court of appeals
the Supreme Court
the Magistrate’s Court
But: a county court
Decorations
Purple Heart
Good Conduct Medal
Croix de Guerre
But: Soldiers are given decorations to signal their acts of heroism.
Degrees (Academic)
B.A.
D.D.
M.D.
Ph.D.
Districts
First Congressional District
But: a congressional district
Educational Courses
English 101
Spanish Grammar
Mathematics Made Easy
But: He is studying physics and chemistry.
Epithets
First Lady of the State
Alexander the Great
Fleets
the Third Fleet
But: The ship was part of the fleet.
Foundations
Carnegie Foundation
Isha Foundation
But: He established a foundation.
Geographic Divisions
Lone Star State
Sooner State
But: There are fifty states in our country.
Northern Hemisphere
South Pole
Old World Near East
Government Divisions
Federal Reserve Board
the Boston Fire Department
But: The department was headed by Mr. Brian Wilson.
Historical Terms
Dark Ages
Renaissance
World War II
Battle of the Bulge
Declaration of Independence
Magna Carta
Holidays
Thanksgiving Day
Passover
Easter Sunday
New Year’s Eve
Libraries
Library of Congress
Albany Public Library
But: The library is a source of information.
Localities
Western Europe
East Africa
Wheat Belt
West Side
Mississippi Delta
Military Services
United States Navy
Signal Corps
Second Battalion
Squadron 28
Nobility and Royalty
Queen of Belgium
But: Many queens were honored here.
Duke of Windsor
But: She was proud to have met a duke.
Oceans and Continents
Pacific Ocean
But: He was glad to be crossing the ocean.
Parks, Peoples, and Tribes
Greenleaf Park
Lake Texoma State Park
Yellowstone National Park
But: The park was in a southern state.
Jews
Christians
Malay
Chickasaw
Personification
He was recognized by the Chair and spoke briefly.
He sang about Summer in all its glory.
But: In summer the days are longer.
Planets and Other Heavenly Bodies
Mars
Venus
Big Dipper
Exceptions: moon, sun, stars
Rivers
Mississippi River
Wabash River
But: The Mississippi and Wabash rivers were flooding after the torrential rains.
Sports Stadiums, Teams, and Terms
Dallas Cowboys
Madison Square Garden
Super Bowl
Dodgers
CAPTIONS
A caption is a short text message that appears below an illustration in a document that names and describes the image. A caption is usually placed directly below the illustration. Good captions pull a reader into the document.
A good caption should:
Identify the subject of the illustration.
Be short.
Establish the relevance to the document.
CARDINAL AND ORDINAL NUMBERS
Numerical symbols like 1, 2, 3 or numbers written as words like one, two, three are cardinal numbers.
Ordinal numbers express an order.
Example: first, second, third …
CASE
Case is a grammatical term that refers to how nouns and pronouns are used with other words in a sentence. There are three cases:
Subjective
Objective
Possessive
The subjective case is also called the nominative case. Subjective case includes:
When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a sentence
Example: I [pronoun] plan to go to India.
Example: Mike [proper noun] sings in a band.
When a predicate noun is used (a noun following a form of the be verb)
Example: He is a singer [a predicate noun].
The objective case is used when the noun or pronoun is used in a sentence as a direct object, an indirect object, or the object of a preposition.
Example: Carl drew the picture [direct object].
Example: Jeff gave us [indirect object] the final presentation.
Example: Our team climbed up the stairs [objective of a preposition] together.
The possessive case is used to show ownership by a noun or pronoun.
Example: Paul washed Nina’s [noun] clothes.
Example: Where did you find her [pronoun] clothes?
Table 2.8 provides a list of pronoun cases.
CATAPHORA
Cataphora is a writing technique that uses words or phrases such as pronouns to point forward to something later in the text.
Example: Since he was afraid of it [points forward to the noun “ocean”], John found it very difficult to go near the ocean.
CAUSATIVE VERBS
Causative verbs are used to describe an action that is necessary to cause another action.
Example: My manager made me do it.
Other examples: let, make, help, allow, have, require, motivate, get, convince, hire, assist, encourage, permit, employ, force
Causative verbs are usually followed by an object (noun or pronoun) and an infinitive (to plus a verb).
Example: He allows his staff to work from home every Friday.
Three causative verbs do not follow this pattern: have, make, let. These verbs are usually followed by an object and the base form of the verb.
Example: She made her clients read the entire contract.
CAUTION NOTICE
CD, DVD
CD stands for compact disc. CD-ROM stands for compact disc, read-only memory. DVD stands for digital video disc. Do not add disc after CD or DVD.
Incorrect: Please give me the CD disc.
Correct: Please give me the DVD.
CENSOR, CENSURE, SENSOR, CENSER
Censor means to suppress someone’s speech or writings to prevent them from being shared.
Example: The producer had to censor the interview by bleeping inappropriate language from the broadcast.
Censure means to denounce an offender.
Example: The lawyer who tampered with evidence was censured by the bar association.
A sensor is a device that detects changes in the environment.
Example: A motion sensor turns the light on when someone goes by.
A censer is an incense burner in a church.
Example: The priest swings the censer three times.
CHAMPAIGN, CHAMPAGNE
Champaign is a city and county in Illinois. Champagne is a type of sparkling wine and a region in France.
CHECK, CONTROL
To check means to make certain something is correct, safe, or suitable by examining it.
Example: You should always check your wiper blades whenever you change your car’s oil.
To control means to limit, order, instruct, or rule something or someone’s actions.
Example: You need to control your dog while walking in the park.
CHIASMUS
A chiasmus is a figure of speech created when two clauses use a reversal of structures. A chiasmus is often used to make a larger point.
Example: “Fair is foul, and foul is fair.”—William Shakespeare
CHICANO, LATINO, HISPANIC
To use these terms correctly in your writing, consider the following definitions:
Chicano means Mexican-American.
Latino means having Latin American heritage.
Hispanic means having heritage from a Spanish-speaking country.
CHOOSE, CHOSE
Choose is the present tense.
Example: Which one are you going to choose?
Chose is the past tense.
Example: I chose the purple one.
CITE, SITE, SIGHT
To cite is a verb meaning to reference another person’s words or writing.
Example: You cite the poet in your report.
A site is a noun meaning a location.
Example: That is the site of the car wreck.
Example: This is my Web site.
Sight can be a noun or a verb. As a noun, sight means the perception of something with your eyes, a view, or a glimpse.
Example: The ocean is in sight.
Sight as a verb means to see or to take notice.
Example: He sighted the enemy in his binoculars.
CITING PUBLICATIONS
Sources are often used in the creation of a new business document. Cited sources appear within the text and in a reference list at the end of the document.
Within the text, insert the last name of the author, a comma, and the publication date in parentheses.
Example: (Stroman, 2011)
For multiple authors, cite both names joined with an ampersand (&), a comma, and the publication date in parentheses.
Example: (Stroman & Wauson, 2011)
If the name of the author is part of the text, cite only the missing information in parenthesis.
Example: as reported by Stroman (2011)
For citing works produced by an association, corporation, or government agency, the name of the group serves as the author.
Example: (American Society for Training and Development, 2011)
For citing works with no author, use the title of the book as the author.
Example: (The Urantia Book, 1955)
Cite your sources in a reference list or bibliography at the end of the document. See Bibliography.
CLAUSES
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb but is not a complete sentence. A clause is different from a phrase because a phrase does not include a subject and a verb.
CLEANUP, CLEAN UP
Cleanup is a noun that refers to a project or task involving cleaning.
Example: The oil spill resulted in a multimillion-dollar cleanup.
Clean up is a verb phrase that describes an action.
Example: You need to clean up your room before dinner.
CLEFT SENTENCES
Cleft sentences are used to convert an original clause into two clauses to change the emphasis in the sentence.
Original clause: Mike ate the apple.
Cleft sentence: It was Mike who ate the apple. [puts the emphasis on Mike]
Cleft sentence: It was the apple that Mike ate. [puts the emphasis on the apple]
CLICHéS
Clichés are overused expressions that have become trite and even annoying. Avoid the clichés shown in Table 2.9.
CLICK
See Press, Type, Click, Strike, Hit, Select, and Mouse Terminology.
CLICK AND DRAG
CLICK ON
CLOSED COMPOUNDS
Coleman-Liau Index
The Coleman-Liau Index is a readability test that is used to determine the grade level a student in the United States would need to be in order to read and understand a document. The index counts the number of characters in words.
The index is calculated using the following formula:
A - B = Index
where A = the number of characters divided by the number of words × 5.89 and B = the number of sentences in a fragment of words × 0.3.
COLLECTIVE ADJECTIVES
A collective adjective is formed when the article the is combined with an adjective describing a class or group of people. The resulting phrase can act as a noun.
Example: the meek, the rich, the poor
The difference between a collective noun and a collective adjective is that the collective adjective is always plural and requires a plural verb.
Example: The poor are always hungry.
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
A collective noun refers to people, animals, or objects as a group.
Example: The company [collective noun] has decided to expand internationally.
Example: I’m going to call the police [collective noun].
COLLOCATIONS
Collocations are groups of words that are regularly used together in a certain order.
Example: hot and cold
Collocations are also word combinations that are common English sayings.
Example: middle management, nuclear family, heavy smoker, incredibly beautiful, wide awake
COLLOQUIAL
Colloquial is a term used to describe informal language that should not be used in formal speech or writing.
Example: ya’ll, gonna, ain’t, pop (for soft drink)
COLON
A colon generally follows a sentence introducing a list or a long quotation.
Example: The following quotation is from the Atlanta Daily newspaper: “Regardless of what may be accomplished, the company will still be involved.”
Example: During your first year, you will study such subjects as these: algebra, physics, chemistry, and psychology.
Exception: When the list is the object of a verb or a preposition, a colon is never used:
Example: During your first year, you will study algebra, physics, chemistry, and psychology.
Emphasis or Anticipation
Colons are also used to stress a word, phrase, or clause that follows it or when a sentence creates anticipation for what immediately follows:
Example: The newspaper published a startling statement: the city is completely out of gasoline.
Time
Colons are used to separate hours and minutes in expressions of time:
Example: 5:15 A.M. EST
Titles
The colon is used to separate a title from a subtitle:
Example: Gone with the Wind: A Story of the Old South
COMBINATION
Don’t confuse combine—normally a verb unless referring to farm equip-ment—with combination, which is a noun referring to a group of entities.
Incorrect: That combine will be a large one.
Correct: That combination will be a large one.
COMMA
A comma tells a reader to pause. Commas are used to separate nouns in a series or adjectives in a series of the same rank modifying the same noun.
Example: The workers picked cherries, peaches, and plums.
Example: We swam in the cool, clear, flowing water.
Commas are often used before an and in a sentence with a series of nouns or adjectives.
Example: At the zoo we saw elephants, tigers, bears, and monkeys.
Some writers prefer to omit the comma before the and in such sentences, unless it is needed for clarity. The same rules apply to using but and or in sentences with a series of nouns or adjectives. The comma is optional.
Example: His face was weathered, dirty, tired but handsome.
A term consisting of years, months, and days is considered not a series but a single unit of time. No commas are used.
Example: Interest will be computed for 6 years 3 months and 2 days.
Compound and Complex Sentences
Two sentences are often connected with a comma and conjunction, such as and or but. A comma is used between the clauses of a compound sentence.
Example: John went to the theater, but he left before the play ended.
Do not confuse this with a compound predicate, which takes no comma.
Example: John went to the theater but left before the play ended.
An adverbial clause usually follows the independent clause, and no comma is used. But for emphasis, the order of the clauses is sometimes transposed. Then a comma is used.
Usual Order: James was met by a large delegation when he came home.
Transposed Order: When James came home, he was met by a large delegation.
Introductory Expressions
Introductory expressions, such as transitional words and phrases, mild exclamations, and other independent expressions, are set off by a comma when they occur alone at the beginning of a sentence.
Example: Yes, I will go.
Example: Well, perhaps she is right.
Example: To tell the truth, I think you should not say anything.
A few introductory expressions are more emphatic without punctuation, however, and need not be followed by a comma.
Example: Doubtless she just couldn’t be here.
Example: At least you tried.
Example: Indeed you may bring your friends with you.
Other Transitional Words
A comma is used to set off the transitional words however, therefore, and moreover when used within the sentence or as the first or last word of the sentence.
Example: Jean may not arrive until noon, however.
Example: Her problem, therefore, must be solved at once.
Example: I will be there, moreover, as soon as I can.
Sometimes though is used to mean however and should be set off with commas.
Example: I will be there, though, if at all possible.
Prepositional Phrases
No comma is used for prepositional phrases within a sentence unless the phrase comes between the subject and the predicate of the clause.
Example: I am sure that because of your generosity we will be able to build the new dormitory.
Example: The product sample, in addition to a diagram, will be sent to you today.
Contrasting Phrases
Contrasting expressions within a sentence are set off by commas.
Example: The lion, not the tiger, growled.
Example: We walk slowly, never quickly, to the garage.
Example: This letter was meant for you, not for me.
Nonrestrictive Modifiers
Nonrestrictive modifiers are phrases or clauses that could be omitted without affecting the meaning of the main clause. Nonrestrictive modifiers should be set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma or by parenthetical commas.
Example: Carlton, my favorite friend, is visiting me.
Example: That car is, I believe, a new model.
Example: Mary Brown, who works next door, is in charge of the festivities.
Infinitive Phrases
An infinitive phrase used independently is set off by commas.
Example: The color is too dark, to list one fault.
If the phrase is used as a modifier, it is not punctuated.
Example: The piano is too large to fit in the room.
Designating Dialogue
A comma is used to separate a dialogue quotation from the main sentence.
Example: “Please come with me,” the boy said.
Example: “What do you think,” Mr. Bleeker asked, “the mayor will do next?”
Commas also separate the name of the person addressed in dialogue from the remainder of the sentence.
Example: “Will you come with me, Luke?”
Example: “But, Amanda, how do you know that the plane is late?”
A confirming question within a sentence is set off by commas.
Example: “He left, did he not, on the noon plane?”
Repeated Words
A comma is used for clarity and to avoid confusion when the same word is repeated.
Example: Whoever goes, goes without my consent.
Word Omission
When words are omitted in one part of a sentence because they were used in a previous part, a comma is used to show where the words were omitted.
Example: Sam’s first car was a Cadillac, and mine, a Ford.
Transposed Adjective Order
An adjective normally precedes the noun it modifies. When an adjective follows a noun, the adjective is set off by commas. When an adjective precedes a noun but also precedes the article before the noun, a comma follows the adjective.
Example: The physician, dignified and competent, told them the bad news.
Example: Dignified and competent, the physician told them the bad news.
Numbers
A comma is used in writing large numbers, separating the thousands digits from the hundreds, the millions digits from the thousands, and so forth.
Example: 249,586
Example: 1,345,000
A comma is used to separate two or more unrelated numbers.
Example: On August 1, 1992, 437 people visited the museum.
Example: Out of eighty, twenty were discarded.
Do not forget the second comma when the date occurs in the middle of the sentence.
Example: She left for England on June 22, 2009, and returned a month later.
Addresses
Elements of an address are set off by commas.
Example: He lives at 410 Hawthorne Street, Chicago, Illinois, near the University of Chicago campus.
On an envelope address, there is no comma between the state and the zip code.
Titles
A comma is used to separate a name and a title.
Example: The letter was from Mrs. Masterson, our president, and contained a list of instructions.
Do not set off Jr. and Sr. from proper names with a comma. A Roman numeral is not set off by a comma.
Example: Philip W. Thompson Sr.
Example: Philip W. Thompson III
Degrees are also set off by a comma.
Example: Jennifer Galt, M.D.
Descriptive titles are not set off by a comma.
Example: Ivan the Terrible
Company Names
Company names consisting of a series of names omit the last comma in the series.
Example: Pate, Tate and Waite
When and Company completes a series of names, the last comma is also omitted.
Example: Pate, Tate, Waite and Company
Do not use a comma before or after Inc., Ltd., Limited, or Incorporated unless the official name of the organization uses a comma.
Example: Johnson Brothers, Incorporated
Example: International Metrics Inc.
Example: Benson & Sons, Limited
COMMON ADJECTIVES
Common adjectives are not written with a capital letter.
Example: a digital watch
Proper adjectives are written with a capital letter.
Example: a Swiss watch
COMMON NOUNS
Common nouns name ordinary people, places, or things. Common nouns are not written with a capital letter unless they begin a sentence.
Example: ball, flower, keys, cat, road, class, neighbors
COMPANY AND PRODUCT NAMES
The first time a product is mentioned, precede the name of the product with the company name. For subsequent usage, the product name alone can be used.
Example: Microsoft Windows [first mention] … Windows [subsequent usage]
Example: Ford Mustang [first mention] … Mustang [subsequent usage]
When listing multiple products from the sample company, precede the company name only for the first product.
Example: Ford Mustang, Escape, Explorer, and Focus
COMPARATIVES
When an adjective or adverb is used to compare two things, the comparative form is used. To create the comparative form, some adjectives add an -er to the end, and some use a modifier before the adjective.
Example: The university is larger than the junior college.
Example: Many people find saving more difficult than spending.
COMPARED TO, COMPARED WITH
Compared to and compared with can sometimes be used interchangeably. When stressing similarities between items being compared, use compared to.
Example: David compared American coffee to French coffee and thought both had rich flavors.
When examining both similarities and differences, use compared with.
Example: Wes compared Jennifer’s cake recipe with Emily’s recipe to determine which one was easiest to prepare.
COMPLEMENT, COMPLIMENT
Complement is a verb that means to add something or to make something better or more attractive.
Example: That blue dress complements your eyes.
Compliment is a noun that means an approving remark.
Example: It was the nicest compliment I’d received in years.
COMPLEMENTS
A complement is any word (or phrase) that completes a subject, object, or verb.
A subject complement follows a linking verb and is used to rename or define the subject.
Example: A tarn is a small glacial lake [subject complement].
An object complement follows or modifies a direct object and can be a noun or adjective.
Example: The players named Logan captain [object complement] to keep him happy.
A verb complement is either a direct or indirect object of a verb.
Example: Mark gave Terry [indirect object] all his old albums [direct object].
COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS
A group of words that function as a preposition are a complex preposition. Complex prepositions consist of two or three words that act as a single unit.
Example: according to, apart from, because of, regardless of, with reference to, on behalf of, in line with, in relation to
COMPOUND NOUNS
Groups of words can form compound nouns.
Example: new moon
With compound nouns, the first word describes the second word. The second word identifies the thing in question. Sometimes two words are joined to form a new word.
Example: haircut, toothpaste, underground
Sometimes several words are joined to form a compound noun.
Example: daughter-in-law
Compound nouns can be formed using the combinations of words shown in Table 2.10.
Table 2.10 Compound Noun Combinations
COMPOUND PREDICATES
COMPOUND SENTENCES
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses, with two thoughts in the sentence, and either can stand alone.
The clauses of a compound sentence are separated either by a semicolon or by a comma and a coordinating conjunction. The most common coordinating conjunction is and; it simply links the two ideas. Other coordinating conjunctions, such as but, or, for, yet, and so, establish a relationship between the two clauses.
Compounding Sentence Elements
You can combine various sentence elements to create compound sentences.
Subjects—Two or more subjects doing parallel things can be combined as a compound subject.
Example: Working together, Acme and Industrial Pipe developed a new type of steel.
Objects—When the subjects are acting on two or more things in parallel, the objects can be combined.
Example: The company president believed that the partnership between the two companies might help them increase sales and that he could eventually force a merger.
Verbs and verbals—When the subjects are doing two things simultaneously, the elements can be combined by compounding verbs and verbals.
Example: He studied sentence structure and grammar and learned how to speak and write effectively.
Modifiers—When appropriate, modifiers and prepositional phrases can be compounded.
Example: The company recruited its programmers from universities across the country and various competing companies.
COMPOUND WORDS
Compound words are two or more words that are used to mean a single concept.
Open Compounds
Some compound words, called open compounds, are written as two separate words with a space between them. Table 2.11 presents a list of commonly used open compounds.
Table 2.11 Common Open Compounds
Closed Compounds
Some compound words, called closed compounds, are combined into a single word. Table 2.12 contains is a list of commonly used closed compounds.
Table 2.12 Common Closed Compounds
Hyphenated Compounds
Some compound words are separated by a hyphen. These are called hyphenated compounds. Table 2.13 presents a list of commonly used hyphenated compounds.
Table 2.13 Common Hyphenated Compounds
COMPTROLLER, CONTROLLER
A comptroller is the chief accountant in a governmental agency.
Example: the Georgia Comptroller of Public Accounts
A controller is the chief accountant in a business.
Example: Our controller, Mike Barrows, will be attending the board of directors meeting.
CONCORD
When combinations of words have a grammatical relationship that affects the form of one or more of the words, they show concord. Concord refers to the agreement between the form of the subject and the form of the verb. It also applies to noun phrases and personal pronouns such as he, she, it, and they. The grammatical relationship requires agreement in person, number, and gender.
Example: I sing, she sings, we sing. [Adding the s to she sings is required for third person singular and a present tense verb.]
CONCRETE NOUNS
Concrete nouns refer to things that actually exist as opposed to abstract nouns, which refer to things that do not have a tangible physical existence.
Example: car, bus, airplane, tree, skin
Concrete nouns can be either countable or uncountable.
CONDITIONAL PERFECT
Conditional perfect is a term used to talk about imaginary situations in the past. Conditional perfect is formed with the phrase would have plus the past participle of the verb.
Example: If he had seen the doctor, he would have not gotten sick.
CONDITIONALS
Conditionals are used when writing about possible or imaginary situations.
The first conditional is used for future actions that are dependent on another future action. First conditional is composed of if + present simple + will.
Example: If he wakes up early enough, we will take him to breakfast with us.
Second conditional is used for future actions that are dependent on another future action where there is little chance of success. Second conditional is composed of if + past simple + would + base form.
Example: If I found a pot of gold, I would share it with my friends.
Second conditional can also be used for imaginary present situations when conditions for the action are not possible.
Example: If you had visited your mother, she wouldn’t be so angry with you.
Third conditional is used for past situations where the conditional action did not occur. Third conditional is composed of if + past perfect + would have + past participle.
Example: If we had seen them, we would have invited them to dinner.
Zero conditional is used when actions will be true when the conditions are met. Zero conditional is composed of if + present simple + present simple.
Example: If you put honey in your tea, it tastes sweet.
Mixed conditionals involve combinations of second and third conditionals.
Other conditionals consist of using one of two formations. One is if + will + will.
Example: If you will write the report, I will do the research.
The other is would + if + would.
Example: I would appreciate it if you would help me more.
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words that connect parts of a sentence. The simplest conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions.
Example: and, but, or, yet, for, nor, so
And
The coordinating conjunction and can be used:
To suggest that one idea is sequential to another.
Example: Steve sent in his application and waited for the response in the mail.
To suggest that an idea is the result of another.
Example: Linda heard the thunder and quickly took shelter inside the house.
To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another.
Example: Carla is an artist and her sister is a doctor.
Frequently the conjunction but is used for this purpose.
To suggest an element of surprise.
Example: Atlanta is a beautiful city and has symptoms of urban blight.
Frequently the conjunction yet is used for this purpose.
To suggest that one clause is dependent.
Example: Drink too much water before the trip, and you’ll soon find yourself stopping at every rest area.
To make a comment on the first clause.
Example: Horace became addicted to gambling—and that’s why he moved to Las Vegas.
But
The coordinating conjunction but can be used:
To suggest an unexpected contrast.
Example: Tom lost money in his investments, but he still maintained a comfortable lifestyle.
To express positively what the first part of the sentence implies negatively.
Example: Tom never invested foolishly, but listened carefully to the advice of investment newsletters.
To connect two ideas with the meaning “with the exception of.”
Example: Everyone but Tom is making money in the stock market.
Or
The coordinating conjunction or can be used:
To suggest that only one possibility is realistic and excludes the other.
Example: You can sell your investment now, or you can lose all your money.
To suggest alternatives.
Example: We can go out to eat and to a movie, or we can just stay home and see what’s on TV.
To suggest a refinement of the first clause.
Example: The University of Texas is the best school in the state, or so it seems to all UT alumni.
To suggest a correction to the first part of the sentence.
Example: There’s no way you can lose money in this investment, or so Eric told himself.
To suggest a negative condition.
Example: You have two choices: pay taxes or die.
Punctuation for Coordinating Conjunctions
When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is often accompanied by a comma.
Example: Bailey wants to play football for Texas, but he has had trouble with his grades.
It is also correct to use a comma with and when used to attach the items in a list.
Example: John needs to study harder in math, history, physics, and economics.
When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma is not used.
Example: Math and history and physics are the subjects that give John the most trouble.
Commas are also used with but when a sentence expresses a contrast.
Example: Thomas is a great manager, but not very smart.
Other Conjunctions
The conjunction nor is used occasionally by itself; however, it is most commonly used in a correlative pair with neither.
Example: He is neither rich nor poor.
Nor can be used with negative expressions.
Example: This is not how I normally dress, nor should you get the idea I have no taste in clothes.
The word yet sometimes functions as an adverb and has various meanings such as in addition, even, still, and eventually. It also functions as a coordinating conjunction with a meaning of nevertheless or but.
Example: Rosemary is an expert in computer programming, yet her real passion is poetry.
The word for is often used as a preposition, but it sometimes acts as a coordinating conjunction. When for is used as a coordinating conjunction, it has a meaning of because or since.
Example: For he’s a jolly good fellow.
The conjunction so can be used to connect two independent clauses along with a comma. It has the meaning of as well as, therefore, or in addition.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of a dependent clause and establishes the relationship between the clause and the rest of the sentence. Table 2.14 shows a list of subordinating conjunctions.
Example: He spoke Spanish as if he had been born in Mexico.
Many subordinating conjunctions also serve as prepositions.
Table 2.14 Subordinating Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions combine with other words to form grammatically equal pairs. The following is a list of correlative conjunctions.
Both, and
Not only, but also
Whether, or
As, as
Either, or
Neither, nor
Not, but
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
A conjunctive adverb connects independent clauses. Common conjunctive adverbs include: however, moreover, therefore, and nevertheless.
Conjunctive adverbs require the use of semicolons.
Example: The repairs to the space station should be successful; however, I’m a bit concerned about the long spacewalk.
Conjunctive adverbs are often confused with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, yet, and while). Coordinating conjunctions do not require semicolons. See Coordinating Conjunctions.
CONJUNCTS
A conjunct is used to relate something said in one sentence to another sentence.
Example: That being said [information from the previous sentence], we made money on the deal.
A conjunct can be removed without making the sentence ungrammatical.
CONNOTE, DENOTE
Denotation is the literal meaning of a word.
Example: Bullheaded and determined both denote stubbornness.
Broader associations with a word are its connotations.
Example: Being determined connotes an adherence to purpose.
CONSIDERED TO BE
The phrase considered to be can often be eliminated from your sentences.
CONSONANTS
The letters B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, and Z are consonants in the English language.
CONTINUOUS VERBS
Continuous verbs are used to describe action that is taking place in the past, present, or future.
One use for continuous verbs is to describe past actions that were in progress at some time in the past, but the actions were not yet finished.
Example: At 10:30 this morning, Mark was talking to the board of directors.
Another use for continuous verbs is to describe two or more actions that were in progress in the past at the same time.
Example: While I was meeting with the general manager, he was busy scanning email messages on his Blackberry.
A third use for continuous verbs is to describe something that was happening when something else happened.
Example: I was deep in the middle of my sales pitch, when the fire alarm suddenly went off.
CONTRACTIONS
A contraction is a shortened form of one or more words with an apostrophe taking the place of the missing letter or letters. Do not use contractions in formal business writing.
Example: don’t, I’m, you’re, it’s, we’re, we’d
In spoken English, forms of the verb to be and other auxiliary verbs are often contracted.
Example: I am, I’m; you will, you’ll, it is, it’s
Contractions are often used with not to negate a verb.
Example: is not, isn’t; are not, aren’t; did not, didn’t
Contractions are often used with have.
Example: I have, I’ve; would have, would’ve
Some single words are sometimes contracted.
Example: of, o’; of the clock, o’clock; madam, ma’am
Table 2.15 shows a list of common contractions.
Table 2.15 Common Contractions
CONTRANYMS
Contranyms are words that can mean the opposite of themselves.
Example: Overlook can mean to look at closely or to miss completely.
See Antagonyms.
CONTROL
CONVINCE, PERSUADE
Convince and persuade are not synonyms.
To convince is to influence someone to adopt a point of view by evidence or by an intellectual argument.
Example: Mike convinced Janet that she was wrong about the incident at the conference.
To persuade is to talk someone into something by appeals made to morals or emotion.
Example: Mike persuaded Janet to sign up for Toastmasters.
COOPERATE
Cooperate is a verb that means to work together. Therefore, cooperate together is redundant.
Incorrect: If they cooperate together, their purpose will be accomplished.
Correct: If they cooperate, their purpose will be accomplished.
COORDINATED ADJECTIVES
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two clauses of equal importance. Words like for, and, nor, but, or, and yet are coordinating conjunctions.
COPULA VERBS
Copula verbs are verbs that connect the subject to the complement. Copula verbs are also called linking verbs.
Example: That band plays [connects the subject to the adjective] great.
Common copula verbs are be, look, feel, taste, smell, sound, seem, appear, get, become, grow, stay, keep, turn, prove, go, remain, resemble, run, and lie.
COPYRIGHT
Copyright is a form of protection provided by U.S. law to the authors of books, films, plays, music, art, and other intellectual works. Protection under copyright law is available for both published and unpublished works.
Owners of a copyright have the exclusive right to reproduce, distribute, or display their intellectual property.
You must obtain permission before including copyrighted work in your own business documents or Web sites.
Copyrighted materials contain a notice of copyright and a copyright symbol (©).
Example: © Copyright 2009, M. B. Wilwau. All rights reserved.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION
COULD OF, MIGHT OF
See Might of, Should of, Would of, Could of.
COUNCIL, COUNSEL, CONSUL
To use these words correctly in your writing, consider these definitions:
A council is a group of persons convened for advisory purposes.
Counsel is advice; the word sometimes means attorney.
A consul is an official appointed by a government to report on matters that the official observes while residing in a foreign land.
COUNT NOUNS
Count nouns are nouns that have both a singular and plural form. The plural of a count noun is usually formed by adding s.
CREDIBLE, CREDULOUS
Credible means believable or worthy of being believed. Credulous means inclined to believe too readily.
Correct: He related the incident in a credible manner.
Correct: She is too credulous for her own good.
CROSS-REFERENCE
A cross-reference is a link in a document to related or more detailed information. Cross-referencing can be accomplished by:
Adding the word see plus the term in italics.
Example: See Operating Systems.
Adding a hyperlink to Web-based documents.
Adding an index to the end of the document.
CUT-AND-PASTE
Cut-and-paste is a term commonly used to describe editing functions in software such as word processing.
When using the term cut-and-paste in business writing, use it only as an adjective, not as a noun phrase or verb phrase. Always include hyphens in cut-and-paste.
Incorrect: Go to the Edit menu and do a cut-and-paste.
Incorrect: In a word processor, you can cut and paste text.
Correct: In most word processors, you can perform a cut-and-paste operation.