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Part 3: Characterization Methods and Measurement
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Part 3: Characterization Methods and Measurement
by Juan Martinez-Vega
Dielectric Materials for Electrical Engineering
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Part 1: General Physics Phenomena
Chapter 1: Physics of Dielectrics
1.1. Definitions
1.2. Different types of polarization
1.2.1. Non-polar solids
1.2.2. Polar solids
1.2.3. Electronic polarization
1.2.4. Ionic polarization
1.2.5. Orientation polarization
1.2.6. Interfacial or space-charge polarization
1.2.7. Comments
1.3. Macroscopic aspects of the polarization
1.3.1. Polarization of solids with metallic bonding
1.3.2. Polarization of iono-covalent solids
1.3.3. Notion of polarization charges
1.3.4. Average field in a neutral medium
1.3.5. Medium containing excess charges
1.3.6. Local field
1.3.7. Frequency response of a dielectric
1.4. Bibliography
Chapter 2: Physics of Charged Dielectrics: Mobility and Charge Trapping
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Localization of a charge in an “ideally perfect” and pure polarizable medium
2.2.1. Consideration of the polarization
2.2.2. Coupling of a charge with a polarizable medium: electrostatic approach
2.2.3. Coupling of a charge with a polarizable medium: quantum approach
2.2.3.1. Coupling with the electronic polarization field
2.2.3.2. Coupling with the ionic polarization field
2.2.4. Conduction mechanisms
2.2.4.1. Low-temperature conduction
2.2.4.2. Conduction at high temperature
2.2.4.3. Comments
2.3. Localization and trapping of carriers in a real material
2.3.1. Localization and trapping of the small polaron
2.3.2. Localization and intrinsic trapping of the carriers
2.3.3. Trapping on structure defects and impurities
2.3.4. Localization related to disorder
2.3.5. Mechanical energy related to the trapping of one charge
2.4. Detrapping
2.4.1. Thermal detrapping
2.4.2. Detrapping under an electric field by the Poole-Frankel effect
2.5. Bibliography
Chapter 3: Conduction Mechanisms and Numerical Modeling of Transport in Organic Insulators: Trends and Perspectives
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Molecular modeling applied to polymers
3.2.1. Energy diagram: from the n-alkanes to polyethylene
3.2.2. Results of modeling
3.2.2.1. N-alkanes models of polyethylene
3.2.2.2. Volume properties: amorphous and crystalline phases
3.2.2.3. Surface and nano-void properties
3.2.2.4. Trapping sites
3.2.2.4.1. Physical defects
3.2.2.4.2. Chemical defects
3.2.2.5. Self-trapping and polaron concept
3.3. Macroscopic models
3.3.1. Elementary processes
3.3.1.1. Generation of charges
3.3.1.1.1. Electrode injection
3.3.1.1.2. Internal generation
3.3.1.1.3. Carrier extraction
3.3.1.2. Charge transport
3.3.1.2.1. Hopping conduction
3.3.1.2.2. Poole–Frenkel Effect
3.3.1.2.3. SCLC models
3.3.1.2.4. Ionic conduction
3.3.1.2.5. Diffusion
3.3.1.2.6. Mobility
3.3.2. Some models characterizing the experimental behavior
3.3.2.1. Transient current models
3.3.2.2. Models associated with the space charge measurements
3.3.2.3. High field models
3.4. Trends and perspectives
3.4.1. Unification of atomistic and macroscopic approaches
3.4.2. Interface behavior
3.4.3. Physical models for transport in volume
3.4.3.1. Identification of the nature of carriers
3.4.3.2. Trap identification
3.4.4. Degradation induced by a charge and/or a field
3.4.5. Contribution of the physics of non-insulating organic materials
3.5. Conclusions
3.6. Bibliography
Chapter 4: Dielectric Relaxation in Polymeric Materials
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Dynamics of polarization mechanisms
4.2.1. Electronic and ionic polarization
4.2.2. Dipolar polarization
4.2.3. Maxwell- Wagner–Sillars polarization
4.2.4. Interfacial polarization
4.3. Orientation polarization in the time domain
4.3.1. Single relaxation time model
4.3.2. Discrete distribution of relaxation times
4.3.3. Continuous distribution of relaxation times
4.3.4. Stretched exponential: Kohlrausch–Williams–Watts equation
4.4. Orientation polarization in the frequency domain
4.4.1. Single relaxation time model: the Debye equation
4.4.2. Discrete distribution of relaxation times
4.4.3. Continuous distribution of relaxation times
4.4.4. Parametric analytical expressions
4.4.4.1. Cole–Cole equation
4.4.4.2. Havriliak and Negami equation
4.4.4 3. Cole–Cole representation
4.4.5. Kramers–Kronig relations
4.5. Temperature dependence
4.5.1. Shift factor
4.5.1.1. Time domain
4.5.1.2. Frequency domain
4.5.2. Crystalline or vitreous phases: Arrhenius equation
4.5.2.1. Thermal activation mechanism
4.5.2.2. Interpretation of the activation parameters
4.5.3. Vitreous phases in the transition zone: the Hoffman–Williams–Passaglia equation
4.5.4. Liquid phases: Vogel–Fulcher–Tammann equation (VFT)
4.5.4.1. Free volume concept
4.5.4.2. Williams–Landel–Ferry empirical expression (WLF)
4.6. Relaxation modes of amorphous polymers
4.6.1. Primary relaxation mode
4.6.1.1. Complex relaxation in an homogenous liquid medium
4.6.1.2. Discrete spectrum of simple relaxations in a heterogenous vitreous medium
4.6.2. Secondary relaxation modes
4.6.2.1. Specific mobility of the chemical structure
4.6.2.2. Mobility of the main chain
4.7. Relaxation modes of semi-crystalline polymers
4.7.1. Complex relaxation in an homogenous medium
4.7.2. Discrete spectrum of elementary relaxations in a heterogenous medium
4.7.3. Universality of the behavior laws in semi-crystalline polymers
4.8. Conclusion
4.9. Bibliography
Chapter 5: Electrification
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Electrification of solid bodies by separation/contact
5.2.1. The process
5.2.2. Charge transfer mechanism by the separation contact of two different conductors
5.2.3. Polymer-metal contact
5.2.4. Contact between two polymers
5.2.5. Triboelectric series
5.3. Electrification of solid particles
5.3.1. Theoretical work by Masuda et al.
5.3.2. Experimental work by Touchard et al. [TOU 91]
5.3.2.1. Experimental device
5.3.2.2. Results
5.3.2.2.1. Influence of the impact angle
5.3.2.2.2. Influence of the impact speed on the normal component
5.3.2.2.3. Influence of the size of the particles
5.3.2.2.4. Comparison of results obtained on the three targets
5.3.2.2.5. Evolution of the total charge of a particle according to the number of impacts
5.4. Conclusion
5.5. Bibliography
Part 2: Phenomena Associated with Environmental Stress – Ageing
Chapter 6: Space Charges: Definition, History, Measurement
6.1. Introduction
6.2. History
6.3. Space charge measurement methods in solid insulators
6.3.1. Destructive methods
6.3.1.1. The thermally stimulated current method
6.3.1.2. The mirror method
6.3.2. Non-destructive methods
6.3.2.1. Thermal methods
6.3.2.2. Pressure methods
6.4. Trends and perspectives
6.5. Bibliography
Chapter 7: Dielectric Materials under Electron Irradiation in a Scanning Electron Microscope
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Fundamental aspects of electron irradiation of solids
7.2.1. Volume of interaction and penetration depth
7.2.2. The different emissions
7.2.2.1. Electron emission
7.2.2.1.1. Backscattered electrons
7.2.2.1.2. Secondary electron emission
Mechanism
Total emission yield
7.2.2.2. Emission of X-ray photons
7.3. Physics of insulators
7.3.1. General points
7.3.2. Insulators under electron irradiation
7.3.2.1. Microscopic phenomena
7.3.2.1.1. Secondary electron emission of insulators
7.3.2.1.2. Induced defects and desorption of species
7.3.2.1.3. Trapping and charge transport
The different processes
Mobility of charge carriers in disordered insulators
7.3.2.2. Macroscopic phenomena: charging effects
7.3.2.2.1. General law of conservation of current and induced charge
7.3.2.2.2. Self-regulation and conventional approach: sign of the induced charge
7.3.2.2.3. Deflection of the primary beam
Partial deflection
Total deflection: mirror effect
7.3.2.2.4. Chemical modifications and other irradiation effects
7.3.2.3. Parameters governing the charge phenomena
7.4. Applications: measurement of the trapped charge or the surface potential
7.4.1. Introduction
7.4.2. Static methods
7.4.2.1. Mirror method
7.4.2.2. Spectroscopic methods
7.4.2.2.1. X-ray spectroscopy
7.4.2.2.2. Electron spectroscopy
7.4.3. Dynamical methods
7.4.3.1. Method based on the deflection of the primary beam
7.4.3.2. Method based on electrostatic influence
7.4.3.2.1. Principle
7.4.3.2.2. Experimental device
7.5. Conclusion
7.6. Bibliography
Chapter 8: Precursory Phenomena and Dielectric Breakdown of Solids
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Electrical breakdown
8.3. Precursory phenomena
8.3.1. Definition
8.3.2. Potential precursors
8.3.2.1. The material
8.3.2.2. Impurities
8.3.3. Induced precursors
8.3.3.1. Outgassing of the insulating material
8.3.3.2. Mechanical deformations
8.3.3.3. The frequency
8.3.3.4. Irradiations
8.3.4. Observed precursors
8.3.4.1. Electroluminescence
8.3.4.2. Pre-breakdown currents
8.3.4.3. Arborescence
8.3.4.4. Presence of electrical discharges
8.3.4.5. The case of transformers
8.4. Conclusion
8.5. Bibliography
Chapter 9: Models for Ageing of Electrical Insulation: Trends and Perspectives
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Kinetic approach according to Zhurkov
9.2.1. Presentation
9.2.2. Interpretation of the process and introduction to the notion of a dilaton
9.2.2.1. Definition according to Zhurkov (1983)
9.2.2.2. Definition according to Kusov (1979)
9.2.2.3. Definition according to Petrov (1983)
9.2.2.4. Universal breakdown kinetics
9.3. Thermodynamic approach according to Crine
9.4. Microscopic approach according to Dissado–Mazzanti–Montanari
9.4.1. Thermal ageing
9.4.2. Ageing under electrical field: space charges effect
9.5. Conclusions and perspectives
9.6. Bibliography
Part 3: Characterization Methods and Measurement
Chapter 10: Response of an Insulating Material to an Electric Charge: Measurement and Modeling
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Standard experiments
10.3. Basic electrostatic equations
10.3.1. General equations
10.3.2. Current measurement at a fixed potential: case (a)
10.3.3. Voltage measurement at a fixed charge: case (b)
10.4. Dipolar polarization
10.4.1. Examples
10.5. Intrinsic conduction
10.5.1. Example: charged insulator irradiated by a high-energy electron beam
10.6. Space charge, injection and charge transport
10.6.1. Electrostatic models
10.6.1.1. Example: transient current measurements on polyethylene films
10.6.2. Models combining electrostatics and thermodynamics: the influence of trapping and dispersive transport
10.6.3. Purely thermodynamic models: current controlled by detrapping
10.6.3.1. Example 1: short-circuit current during the discharge of a polyethylene film
10.6.3.2. Example 2: voltage decay on a polystyrene film charged by an electron beam
10.6.4. Interface-limited charge injection
10.6.4.1. Example 1: stationary current in polypropylene films
10.6.4.2. Example 2: voltage decay on corona-charged films
10.7. Which model for which material?
10.8. Bibliography
Chapter 11: Pulsed Electroacoustic Method: Evolution and Development Perspectives for Space Charge Measurement
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Principle of the method
11.2.1. General context
11.2.2. PEA device
11.2.3. Measurement description
11.2.4. Signal processing
11.2.5. Example of measurement
11.3. Performance of the method
11.3.1. Resolution in the thickness
11.3.2. Lateral resolution
11.3.3. Acquisition frequency
11.3.4. Signal/noise ratio
11.4. Diverse measurement systems
11.4.1. Measurements under high voltage
11.4.2. High and low temperature measurements
11.4.3. Measurements under lighting
11.4.4. 3D detection system
11.4.5. PEA system with high repetition speed
11.4.6. Portable system
11.4.7. Measurements under irradiation
11.4.8. Contactless system
11.5. Development perspectives and conclusions
11.6. Bibliography
Chapter 12: FLIMM and FLAMM Methods: Localization of 3-D Space Charges at the Micrometer Scale
12.1. Introduction
12.2. The FLIMM method
12.2.1. Principle
12.2.2. Characteristic FLIMM equation
12.3. The FLAMM method
12.4. Modeling of the thermal gradient
12.5. Mathematical deconvolution
12.5.1. Virtual Space Charge Model
12.5.2. The scale transformation method
12.5.3. The regularization method
12.6. Results
12.6.1. 1-D study of PEN (Polyethylene Naphtalate) subjected to high fields
12.6.2. 2-D charge distribution
12.6.3. 3-D charge distributions
12.6.3.1. Sample preparation
12.6.3.2. 3-D cartographies
12.7. Conclusion
12.8. Bibliography
Chapter 13: Space Charge Measurement by the Laser-Induced Pressure Pulse Technique
13.1. Introduction
13.2. History
13.3. Establishment of fundamental equations for the determination of space charge distribution
13.3.1. Specific case: uncharged or charged and short-circuited sample (V=0)
13.3.2. General case: charged sample submitted to an electrical potential difference
13.3.3. Application of a pressure wave
13.3.4. Relationships between measured signals and charge distribution
13.4. Experimental setup
13.4.1. Synoptic schema of the measurement setup
13.4.2. Generation of pressure
13.4.3. Signal recording
13.4.4. Calibration of the experimental setup
13.4.5. Signal processing
13.5. Performances and limitations
13.5.1. Performances
13.5.2. Limitations
13.6. Examples of use of the method
13.7. Use of the LIPP method for surface charge measurement
13.8. Perspectives
13.9. Bibliography
Chapter 14: The Thermal Step Method for Space Charge Measurements
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Principle of the thermal step method (TSM)
14.2.1. The TSM in short circuit conditions
14.2.2. Evosec of the TSM for measurements under a continuous applied electric field
14.2.3. Calibration: use of measurements under low applied field for the determination of material parameters
14.3. Numerical resolution methods
14.4. Experimental set-up
14.4.1. Plate-type samples
14.4.2. Power cables
14.4.2.1. Measurements in short circuit conditions
14.4.2.2. Measurements under applied electric field
14.5. Applications
14.5.1. Materials
14.5.1.1. Influence of molar weight and cooling rate on the presence of space charges in polyethylene [TOU 98]
14.5.1.2. Revealing the heterogenity of composite materials (charged epoxy resin)
14.5.1.3. Evolution of space charges in materials for cables subjected to an alternative electrical constraint (50 Hz)
14.5.2. Components
14.5.2.1. Monitoring of the internal electric field of a cable subjected to electrical and thermal stress
14.5.2.2. Monitoring of the ageing of micaceous composite insulation from a power alternator winding
14.5.2.3. Characterization of Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) structures for micro and nanoelectronics
14.6. Conclusion
14.7. Bibliography
Chapter 15: Physico-Chemical Characterization Techniques of Dielectrics
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Domains of application
15.2.1. Transformers and power capacitors
15.2.1.1. Principle of chromatographic analysis and results
15.2.1.2. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
15.2.1.3. Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)
15.2.2. Energy transport cables and dry capacitors
15.2.2.1. Microscopy
15.3. The materials themselves
15.3.1. Infrared spectrophotometry
15.3.2. Calorimetric analysis
15.3.3. Thermostimulated currents
15.4. Conclusion
15.5. Bibliography
Chapter 16: Insulating Oils for Transformers
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Generalities
16.3. Mineral oils
16.3.1. Composition
16.3.2. Implementation
16.3.3. Characteristics
16.4. Synthetic esters or pentaerythritol ester
16.4.1. Composition and implementation
16.4.2. Characteristics
16.4.3. Application
16.5. Silicone oils or PDMS
16.5.1. Composition and implementation
16.5.2. Characteristics
16.5.2.1. Use
16.6. Halogenated hydrocarbons or PCB
16.6.1. Composition and implementation
16.6.2. Characteristics
16.6.3. Retro-filling
16.7. Natural esters or vegetable oils
16.7.1. Composition and implementation
16.7.2. Characteristics
16.7.3. Use
16.8. Security of employment of insulating oils
16.8.1. Characteristics related to fire
16.8.1.1. Flash point, fire point and auto-inflammation
16.8.1.2. Combustion characteristics
16.8.2. Toxicology and ecotoxicology
16.8.2.1. The toxicological properties
16.8.2.2. The ecotoxicological properties
16.9. Conclusion and perspectives
16.10. Bibliography
Chapter 17: Electrorheological Fluids
17.1. Introduction
17.1.1. Electrokinetic effects
17.1.2. Electroviscous effects
17.1.3. Electrorheological effects
17.2. Electrorheology
17.2.1. Electrorheological effect
17.2.2. Characterization of electrorheological fluids
17.2.2.1. Rheological characteristics
17.2.2.2. Electrical characteristics
17.2.2.3. Energy assessment
17.2.3. Composition of electrorheological fluids
17.2.4. Applications of electrorheological fluids
17.3. Mechanisms and modeling of the electrorheological effect
17.3.1. Forces exerted on and between the particles
17.3.2. Mechanisms of the electrorheological effect
17.3.2.1. Polarization and bringing the particles closer
17.3.2.2. Formation of chains and conduction current
17.3.2.3. Flow resistance
17.4. The conduction model
17.4.1. The bases of the conduction model
17.4.2. Attraction force between half-spheres
17.5. Giant electrorheological effect
17.6. Conclusion
17.7. Bibliography
Chapter 18: Electrolytic Capacitors
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Generalities
18.2.1. Characteristic parameters
18.2.1.1. Presentation
18.2.1.2. Energy and capacity
18.2.1.3. Dielectric constant and rigidity
18.2.1.4. Thickness of the dielectric
18.2.1.5. Surface of electrodes
18.2.2. Conclusions on the different families of capacitors
18.3. Electrolytic capacitors
18.4. Aluminum liquid electrolytic capacitors
18.4.1. Principles and composition [PER 03], [ALV 95]
18.4.2. Assembly and connections [PER 03]
18.5. (Solid electrolyte) tantalum electrolytic capacitors
18.5.1. Principle, composition and glimpse of the manufacture [BES 90], [KEM 01], [LAG 96], [PRY 01]
18.5.2. Assembly and connections
18.6. Models and characteristics
18.6.1. Representative electrical diagram
18.6.2. Loss factors, loss angles
18.6.3. Variation as a function of the voltage
18.6.4. Variation as a function of the ambient temperature
18.6.4.1. Electrolyte liquid aluminum electrolytic capacitors
18.6.4.2. Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors
18.7. Failures of electrolytic capacitors
18.7.1. Modes and failure rates of components
18.7.2. Influence of temperature
18.7.3. Failures of liquid electrolyte aluminum electrolytic capacitors
18.7.3.1. Ageing of liquid electrolyte aluminum capacitors
18.7.3.2. Other failures of liquid electrolyte aluminum capacitors
18.7.4. Failures of solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors
18.8. Conclusion and perspectives
18.9. Bibliography
Chapter 19: Ion Exchange Membranes for Low Temperature Fuel Cells
19.1. Introduction
19.2. Homogenous cation-exchange membranes
19.3. Heterogenous ion exchange membranes
19.4. Polymer/acid membranes
19.4.1. Membranes prepared from polyme blends
19.5. Characterization of membranes
19.5.1. Nernst-Planck flux equation
19.5.2. Osmotic phenomena and electric potential
19.5.3. Ionic diffusion in ion exchange membranes
19.5.4. Electromotive force of concentration cells and transport number
19.5.5. Conductivity
19.5.6. Electro-osmosis
19.5.7. Thermodynamics of irreversible processes and transport numbers
19.6. Experimental characterization of ion exchange membranes
19.6.1. Water sorption
19.6.2. Determination of the ion exchange capacity
19.6.3. Measurements of transport number and mobility of protons in membranes
19.6.3.1. Measurement of the mobility of protons
19.6.4. Measurement of conductivity
19.6.5. Electro-osmotic measurements
19.6.6. Measurements of the permeability of reformers in membranes: methanol permeability in vapour phase
19.7. Determination of membrane morphology using the SEM technique
19.8. Thermal stability
19.9. Acknowledgements
19.10. Bibliography
Chapter 20: Semiconducting Organic Materials for Electroluminescent Devices and Photovoltaic Conversion
20.1. Brief history
20.2. Origin of conduction in organic semiconductors
20.3. Electrical and optical characteristics of organic semiconductors
20.4. Application to electroluminescent devices
20.4.1. General structure of an organic electroluminescent diode (OLED)
20.4.2. Electroluminescence efficiency
20.4.3. Advancement of the technology
20.5. Application to photovoltaic conversion
20.5.1. General structure of an organic photovoltaic cell
20.5.2. Functioning of an organic photovoltaic cell
20.5.3. Advancement of the technology
20.6. The processing of organic semiconductors
20.6.1. Deposition of polymer solutions
20.6.1.1. Deposition by spreading
20.6.1.2. “Inkjet” deposition
20.6.2. Vapor phase deposition of low molar mass materials
20.6.2.1. Deposition by thermal evaporation under secondary vacuum
20.6.2.2. Low-pressure vapor phase deposition
20.6.3. Laser thermal transfer of organic materials
20.7. Conclusion
20.8. Bibliography
Chapter 21: Dielectric Coatings for the Thermal Control of Geostationary Satellites: Trends and Problems
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Space environment
21.2.1. Orbits
21.2.2. Free space
21.2.3. Microgravity
21.2.4. Thermal environment
21.2.5. Atomic oxygen
21.2.6. Electromagnetic radiation
21.2.7. Charged particles [HID 05]
21.2.8. Meteoroids and cosmic debris
21.3. The thermal control of space vehicles
21.3.1. The definition of thermal control
21.3.2. Usual technologies for thermal control
21.3.3. Coatings for thermal control
21.3.4. Multilayer insulations (MLI)
21.3.5. Radiator coatings
21.4. Electrostatic phenomena in materials
21.4.1. Electrical conductivity
21.4.1.1. The secondary electronic emission
21.4.1.2. Intrinsic conductivity
21.4.1.3. Radiation-induced conductivity
21.4.2. Electrostatic discharges in the geostationary environment
21.4.2.1. Dielectric discharge
21.4.2.2. Metal discharge
21.4.2.2.1. Field emission
21.4.2.2.2. The peak effect
21.5. Conclusion
21.6. Bibliography
Chapter 22: Recycling of Plastic Materials
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Plastic materials
22.2.1. Introduction to plastic materials
22.2.2. Consumption of plastic materials
22.2.3. Plastics in electrical engineering
22.3. Plastic residues
22.3.1. Generation and recovery of plastic residues
22.3.2. Processings at the end of life
22.3.2.1. Mechanical recycling of thermoplastics
22.3.2.2. Mechanical recycling of thermohardenables
22.3.2.3. Chemical recycling, or feedstock
22.3.2.3.1. Chemolysis or chemical depolymerization
22.3.2.3.2. Thermolysis
22.3.2.4. Incineration with energy recovery
22.3.3. Potential and limitations of recycling
22.4. Bibliography
Chapter 23: Piezoelectric Polymers and their Applications
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Piezoelectric polymeric materials
23.2.1. Poly(vinylidene fluoride)(PVDF)
23.2.2. The copolymers P(VDF-TrFE)
23.2.3. The odd-numbered polyamides
23.2.4. Copolymers constituted of vinylidene cyanide monomer
23.3. Electro-active properties of piezoelectric polymers
23.3.1. Ferroelectricity
23.3.2. Semi-crystalline polymers: Fluorinated polymers and odd polyamides
23.3.3. Amorphous Poly(vinylidene cyanide) copolymers
23.3.4. Influence of chemical composition and physical structure on the electro-active properties of polymers
23.3.5. Protocols of polarization
23.3.6. Piezoelectricity
23.3.7. Reduction of the number of independent coefficients – Matrix notation
23.3.8. Piezoelectric constitutive equations
23.3.9. Comparison of piezoelectric properties
23.4. Piezoelectricity applications
23.4.1. Transmitting transducers
23.4.2. Piezoelectric sensors
23.5. Transducers
23.5.1. Principle
23.5.2. Electroacoustic transducers
23.5.3. Characteristics of ultrasonic transducers
23.5.4. Hydrophones
23.5.5. Probes for Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
23.5.6. Biomedical transducer applications
23.6. Conclusion
23.7. Bibliography
Chapter 24: Polymeric Insulators in the Electrical Engineering Industry: Examples of Applications, Constraints and Perspectives
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Equipment
24.2.1. Arc commutation
24.2.2. Composite insulators
24.3. Power transformer insulation
24.4. Perspectives
24.5. Conclusion
24.6. Bibliography
List of Authors
Index
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