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by K. Sesha Maheswaramma
Engineering Chemistry
Cover
Title Page
Contents
Forword
Preface
About the Authors
1. Water Technology
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Sources of Water
1.3 Types of Impurities Present in Water
1.4 Hard Water and Hardness
1.5 Determination of Hardness
1.6 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
1.7 Determination of Chlorides in Water
1.8 Determination of Acidity in Water
1.9 Alkalinity of Water
1.10 Disadvantages of Hard Water
1.11 Quality of Water for Domestic Use
1.12 Treatment of Water for Domestic Use
1.13 Break-Point Chlorination
1.14 Boilers and Boiler Troubles
1.15 Softening of Water
1.16 Desalination
1.17 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
Problems for Practice
2. Polymers
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Degree of Polymerisation
2.3 Classification of Polymers
2.3.1 Classification Based on Source
2.3.2 Classification Based on Composition
2.3.3 Classification Based on Chemical Composition
2.3.4 Classification Based on Structure
2.3.5 Classification Based on Mode of Polymerisation
2.3.6 Classification Based on the Molecular Forces
2.3.7 Classification Based on Tacticity
2.4 Types of Polymerization
2.4.1 Condensation Polymerisation or Step Polymerisation
2.4.2 Addition/Vinyl/Chain Polymerisation
2.4.3 Coordination Polymerisation
2.5 Molecular Mass of a Polymer
2.6 Plastics
2.7 Important Polymers—Composition, Preparation, Properties and Engineering Uses
2.7.1 Thermoplastics
2.7.2 Thermosetting Plastics
2.8 Rubber (Elastomers)
2.8.1 Processing of Natural Rubber
2.8.2 Gutta–Percha
2.8.3 Vulcanisation of Rubber
2.8.4 Compounding of Rubber
2.8.5 Synthetic Rubbers or Artificial Rubber
2.8.6 Important Artificial Rubbers
2.9 Reinforced or Filled Plastics
2.9.1 Composition
2.9.2 Nature of Polymers Used
2.9.3 Application of Filled Plastics (Reinforced Plastics)
2.10 Biopolymers
2.10.1 Major Feed Stocks for Biopolymers
2.10.2 Preparation Methods
2.10.3 Important Biodegradable Polymers
2.10.4 Importance of Biopolymers in Sustainable Development
2.11 Conducting Polymers
2.11.1 Intrinsically Conducting Polymer (ICP) or Conjugated π-Electrons Conducting Polymer
2.11.2 Conducting Polyaniline
2.11.3 Extrinsically Conducting Polymers
2.12 Polyphosphazenes/Phosphonitrilic Polymers
2.13 Composites
2.13.1 Constituents of Composites
2.13.2 Classification of Composites
2.13.3 Advantages of Composites over Conventional Materials
2.13.4 Applications of Composites
2.14 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
3. Fuels and Combustion
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Classification of Fuels
3.3 Units of Heat
3.4 Calorific Value
3.5 Determination of Calorific Value
3.5.1 Bomb Calorimeter
3.5.2 Junker’s Calorimeter
3.6 Characteristics of Good Fuel
3.7 Solid Fuels
3.7.1 Coal
3.7.2 Analysis of Coal
3.7.3 Metallurgical Coke
3.7.4 Manufacture of Metallurgical Coke
3.8 Liquid Fuels
3.8.1 Petroleum Refining
3.8.2 Important Petroleum Products and their Uses
3.9 Synthetic Petrol
3.9.1 Cracking
3.9.2 Fischer–Trapsch Method
3.9.3 Bergius Method
3.10 Power Alcohol
3.10.1 Manufacture of Power Alcohol
3.11 Knocking
3.12 Diesel Engine, Cetane and Octane Number
3.13 Gaseous Fuels
3.13.1 Natural Gas
3.13.2 Producer Gas (or) Suction Gas
3.13.3 Water Gas (or) Blue Gas
3.13.4 Coal Gas
3.13.5 Biogas
3.14 Flue Gas Analysis by Orsats Apparatus
3.15 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
4. Alternate Energy Resources
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Conventional or Traditional Energy Resources
4.1.2 Nonconventional Energy Resources or Renewable Energy Sources
4.1.3 Alternative Energy
4.2 Non-Conventional Energy Sources and Storage Devices
4.2.1 Solar Energy
4.2.2 Wind Energy
4.2.3 Geothermal Energy
4.2.4 Water Power
4.2.5 Biomass
4.2.6 Nuclear Energy
4.2.7 Nuclear Reactions
4.3 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
5. Electrochemistry and Batteries
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Electrolysis
5.2.1 Laws of Electrolysis
5.3 Electrolytic Conduction
5.3.1 Factors Affecting Electrolytic Conduction
5.3.2 Electrical Resistance and Conductance
5.3.3 Specific, Equivalent and Molar Conductivities
5.3.4 Equivalent Conductivity
5.3.5 Molar Conductivity
5.3.6 Measurement of Electrolytic Conductance
5.3.7 Variation of Conductivity with Concentration
5.3.8 Conductance Behaviour of Strong Electrolyte
5.3.9 Conductance Behaviour of Weak Electrolyte
5.4 Kohlrausch’s Law of Independent Migration of Ions
5.5 Conductometric Titrations
5.6 Electrochemical Cells
5.7 Types of Electrodes
5.8 Reference Electrode
5.9 Ion Selective Electrodes (ISE)
5.9.1 Electrochemical Circuit and Working of ISE
5.9.2 Types of Ion – Selective Membranes
5.9.3 Applications of Ion Selective Electrodes
5.10 Glass Electrode
5.10.1 Construction of Glass Electrode
5.11 Concentration Cell
5.12 Potentiometric Titrations
5.13 Electrochemical Sensors
5.13.1 Potentiometric Sensor
5.13.2 Analysis of Glucose in Blood
5.13.3 Analysis of Urea
5.14 Voltammetry
5.14.1 Linear Sweep Voltammetry (LSV)
5.14.2 Ferric Fe3+/Fe2+ System
5.14.3 Cyclic Voltammetry
5.14.4 Applications of Voltammetry
5.15 Batteries
5.15.1 Advantages of Batteries
5.15.2 Disadvantages of Batteries
5.16 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Solved Numerical Problems
Descriptive Questions
Problems for Practice
6. Science of Corrosion
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Causes of Corrosion
6.1.2 Types of Corrosion
6.2 Galvanic Series
6.2.1 Factors Affecting Corrosion
6.3 Protection from Corrosion (Preventive Measures for Corrosion Control)
6.4 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
7. Chemistry of Engineering Materials
7.1 Semiconducting and Super Conducting Materials
7.1.1 Semiconductor
7.1.2 Applications of Semiconductors
7.1.3 Superconductors
7.2 Magnetic Materials
7.2.1 General Properties of Magnetic Materials
7.2.2 Classification of Magnetic Materials
7.2.3 Applications of Magnetic Materials
7.3 Cement
7.3.1 Classification of Cement
7.3.2 Raw Materials used in the Manufacture of Portland Cement
7.3.3 Manufacture of Portland Cement
7.3.4 Chemical Composition of Portland Cement and its Importance
7.3.5 Setting and Hardening of Cement
7.3.6 ISI Specifications of Cement
7.3.7 Analysis of Cement
7.3.8 Plaster of Paris/Gypsum Plaster
7.4 Refractories
7.4.1 Characteristics of Good Refractory Materials
7.4.2 Failures of Refractory Materials
7.4.3 Classification of Refractories
7.4.4 Properties of Refractories
7.4.5 Manufacture of High-Alumina Bricks, Magnesite Bricks and Zirconia Bricks
7.5 Lubricants
7.5.1 Important Functions of Lubricants
7.5.2 Mechanism of Lubrication
7.5.3 Classification of Lubricants
7.5.4 Properties of Lubricants
7.5.5 Redwood Viscometer
7.5.6 Engler’s Viscometer
7.5.7 Saybolt Viscometer
7.5.8 U-Tube Viscometer
7.5.9 Conversion of Redwood, Engler and Saybolt Viscosities into Absolute Units
7.6 Explosives and Propellants
7.6.1 Some Important Terms about Explosives
7.6.2 Classification of Explosives
7.6.3 Precautions during Storage of Explosives
7.6.4 Blasting Fuses
7.6.5 Important Explosives and their Preparation
7.6.6 Rocket Propellants
7.6.7 Characteristics of a Good Propellant
7.6.8 Classifications of Propellants
7.7 Nanomaterials
7.7.1 Synthesis of Nanomaterials
7.7.2 Characterisation
7.7.3 Importance
7.7.4 Broad Classification of Nanomaterials
7.7.5 Fullerenes
7.7.6 Types of Fullerenes
7.7.7 Properties of Nanomaterials
7.7.8 Applications of Nanomaterials
7.8 Liquid Crystals
7.8.1 Characteristics of Liquid Crystal Phase
7.8.2 Classification of Liquid Crystals
7.8.3 Thermotropic Liquid Crystals
7.8.4 Lyotropic Liquid Crystals
7.8.5 Chemical Properties of Liquid Crystals
7.8.6 Applications of Liquid Crystals
7.9 Abrasives
7.9.1 Hardness of Abrasive
7.9.2 Natural Abrasives
7.9.3 Artificial Abrasives
7.10 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
8. Phase Rule
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Explanation of the Terms Involved in Phase Equilibria
8.2.1 Phase (P)
8.2.2 Components (C)
8.2.3 Degree of Freedom (F)
8.2.4 True and Metastable Equilibrium
8.2.5 Eutectic Mixture and Eutectic Point
8.2.6 Triple Point
8.3 Phase Rule
8.3.1 Assumptions for the Validation of Phase Rule
8.3.2 Thermodynamic Derivation of the Phase Rule
8.3.3 Utility of Phase Rule | Application of Phase Rule
8.3.4 Limitations of Phase Rule
8.4 Phase Diagrams
8.5 One Component System
8.6 Two Component System
8.6.1 Eutectic System
8.6.2 Lead (Pb) – Silver (Ag) System
8.7 Heat Treatment of Steel
8.8 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Solved Numerical Problems
Descriptive Questions
9. Photochemistry
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Light Source in Photochemistry
9.3 Laws of Photochemistry
9.3.1 Grotthuss–Draper Law or The First Law of Photochemistry
9.3.2 Stark-Einstein Law or Photochemical Equivalence Law
9.3.3 Beer-Lambert Law
9.4 Photophysical and Chemical Processes
9.4.1 Photophysical Process
9.4.2 Photochemical Process
9.5 Quantum Yield and Quantum Efficiency
9.6 Photosensitisation
9.7 Photodynamic Therapy
9.8 Important Photochemical Reactions
9.9 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
10. Surface Chemistry
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Adsorption
10.2.1 Mechanism of Adsorption
10.2.2 Adsorption is Exothermic
10.2.3 Difference between Adsorption and Absorption
10.2.4 Examples of Adsorption, Absorption, and Sorption
10.2.5 Positive and Negative Adsorptions
10.2.6 Classification of Adsorption
10.2.7 Factors Affecting the Adsorption of Gases by Solids
10.2.8 Adsorption Isotherms
10.2.9 Applications of Adsorption
10.3 Colloidal State
10.3.1 Types of Solution
10.3.2 Classification of Colloids
10.3.3 Properties of Colloidal Solutions
10.3.4 Applications of Colloids
10.4 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Long Answer Questions
11. Thermodynamics
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Thermodynamic Terms and Basic Concepts
11.2 Types of Thermodynamic Systems
11.2.1 Isolated System
11.2.2 Closed System
11.2.3 Open System
11.3 Intensive and Extensive Properties
11.3.1 Intensive Property
11.3.2 Extensive Property
11.3.3 State Variables
11.4 Reversible and Irreversible Process
11.4.1 Reversible Process
11.4.2 Irreversible Process
11.4.3 Thermodynamic Processes
11.4.4 Isothermal Process or Isothermal Change
11.4.5 Indicator Diagram
11.4.6 Work Done by a System in an Adiabatic Process
11.4.7 First Law of Thermodynamics and its Application
11.4.8 Second Law of Thermodynamics
11.4.9 Carnot’s Engine, Efficiency
11.4.10 Working of Carnot’s Engine
11.4.11 Absolute Zero
11.4.12 Numerical Problems Based on Carnot’s Cycle
11.4.13 Solved Numerical Problems Based on Isothermal and Adiabatic Process
11.5 Thermodynamic Potentials and Maxwell Equations
11.5.1 Thermodynamic Potential
11.5.2 Internal Energy (U)
11.5.3 Total Heat Function (H)
11.5.4 Helmholtz Function (F)
11.5.5 Gibb’s Free Energy or Gibb’s Function (G)
11.5.6 Maxwell’s Equations
11.5.7 Clausius–Clapeyron Equation
11.5.8 Derivation of the Stefan–Boltzmann Law using Maxwell’s Equations
11.5.9 Joule–Thomson Effect or Joule–Kelvin Effect
11.6 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
12. Metals in Biological System
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Essential Elements
12.2.1 Bulk Elements
12.2.2 Macrominerals
12.2.3 Micro Elements (Trace Elements)
12.3 Non-Essential Elements
12.4 Important Metals in Biological Systems
12.4.1 Haemoglobin
12.4.2 Myoglobin
12.4.3 Vitamin B12
12.4.4 Chlorophyll
12.5 Metals and their Toxicity
12.5.1 Toxicity of Arsenic
12.5.2 Toxicity of Lead
12.5.3 Toxicity of Mercury
12.6 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
13. Organometallic Compounds
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Organometallic Chemistry Timeline
13.2 Organolithium Compounds
13.2.1 Preparation of Organolithium Compounds
13.2.2 Properties of Organolithium Compounds
13.3 Organomagnesium Compounds
13.3.1 Preparation of Organomagnesium Compounds
13.3.2 Properties of Organomagnesium Compounds
13.4 Metal Carbonyls
13.4.1 Ligand
13.4.2 Effective Atomic Number
13.4.3 Preparation of Carbonyls
13.4.4 Properties of Carbonyls
13.4.5 Structure of Carbonyls
13.5 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
14. Coordination Chemistry
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Basic Requirements to Formation of Coordination Compound
14.3 Nomenclature of Metal Complexes
14.3.1 Cationic Complex
14.3.2 Anionic Complex
14.3.3 Nonionic Complexes
14.3.4 Polynuclear Complex
14.3.5 Complex with Metal-Metal Bond
14.4 Theories of Coordination Chemistry
14.4.1 Werner’s Theory
14.4.2 Sidgwick’s Electronic Concept Theory
14.4.3 Valance Bond Theory
14.4.4 Crystal Field Theory
14.4.5 Common Single Atomic Ligands and their Field Strength
14.4.6 Molecular Orbital Theory of Coordination Complexes
14.5 Factors Affecting the Stability of Coordination Compounds
14.6 Determination of Complex Ion Formation
14.7 Stability of Coordination Compounds
14.8 Applications of Coordination Compounds
14.9 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
15. Structure and Reactivity of Organic and Inorganic Molecules
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Hybridisation
15.2.1 Salient Features of Hybridisation
15.2.2 Important Conditions for Hybridisation
15.2.3 Types of Hybridisation
15.3 Bond Polarisation
15.3.1 Electron Displacement in Covalent Bonds
15.4 Reaction Intermediates
15.4.1 Free Radicals
15.4.2 Carbocations or Carbonium Ions
15.4.3 Carbanions
15.4.4 Carbenes
15.4.5 Nitrenes or Imidogens
15.4.6 Benzynes
15.5 Molecular Orbital Theory
15.5.1 Important Points on Molecular Orbital Diagrams
15.5.2 Fundamental Steps for Constructing Molecular Orbitals
15.5.3 Five Basic Rules of Molecular Orbital Theory
15.5.4 Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals and Type of Atomic Orbitals
15.5.5 Molecular Orbital Energy Level Diagrams of Homo Atomic Molecules
15.5.6 Molecular Energy Level Diagrams of Hetero Atomic Molecules
15.6 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
16. Stereochemistry
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Isomerism
16.2.1 Structural Isomerism
16.2.2 Space or Stereoisomerism
16.3 Classification of Structural Isomerism
16.3.1 Chain or Nuclear Isomerism
16.3.2 Position Isomerism
16.3.3 Ring or Chain Isomerism
16.3.4 Functional Group Isomerism
16.3.5 Metamerism
16.3.6 Tautomerism
16.4 Classification of Stereoisomerism
16.4.1 Geometrical Isomerism
16.4.2 Optical Isomerism
16.4.3 Conformational Isomers
16.4.4 R–S Nomenclature or CIP Nomenclature
16.4.5 E–Z Nomenclature
16.5 Molecular Representation
16.5.1 Wedge and Dash Projections
16.5.2 Fisher Projections
16.5.3 Sawhorse Representation
16.5.4 Newman Representation
16.6 Molecular Isomerism
16.7 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
17. Spectroscopy
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Ultra Violet and Visible Spectroscopy
17.2.1 Principle
17.2.2 Instrumentation
17.2.3 Instrumental Design
17.2.4 Electronic Transitions
17.2.5 Chromophores
17.2.6 Auxochrome
17.2.7 Woodward–Fieser Rules
17.2.8 Factors Affecting the Position of the λ Maximum and Intensity of Radiation
17.2.9 Franck-Condon Principle
17.2.10 Solved Problems Based on UV-Vis Spectroscopy
17.2.11 Applications of UV-Visible Spectroscopy
17.3 IR-Spectroscopy
17.3.1 Basic Principle
17.3.2 Instrumentation
17.3.3 Molecular Vibrations
17.3.4 Factors Affecting Vibrational Frequency
17.3.5 Degrees of Freedom
17.3.6 Solved Problems Based on IR Spectra
17.3.7 Applications of IR Spectroscopy
17.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
17.4.1 Principle
17.4.2 Instrumentation
17.4.3 Chemical Shift
17.4.4 Spin-Spin Splitting, Spin-Spin Interaction, Spin–Spin Coupling or Fine Spectrum
17.4.5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
17.4.6 High Resolution Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
17.4.7 NMR Applications
17.4.8 Solved Problems Based on Proton NMR
17.5 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
18. Thermal Analysis
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis
18.2.1 Principle of TGA
18.2.2 Applications of TGA
18.3 Differential Thermal Analysis
18.3.1 Principle of DTA
18.4 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
19. Chromatography
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Chromatography Timeline
19.2 Classification of Chromatography
19.2.1 Classification Based on Mobile Phase
19.2.2 Classification Based on Attractive Forces
19.2.3 Classification Based on Partition of Relative Solubility of Analyte in Mobile and Stationary Phase
19.2.4 Chromatographic Techniques on the Type of Support Material Used in the System
19.3 Types of Chromatography
19.3.1 Gas-Liquid-Chromatography
19.4 Chromatography Theory
19.4.1 Distribution Coefficient or Partition Coefficient (K)
19.4.2 Retention Time (tR)
19.4.3 Retention Volume (VR)
19.4.4 Plate Theory
19.5 High Performance Liquid Chromatography
19.5.1 Instrumentation
19.5.2 Theory of High Performance Liquid Chromatography
19.6 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
20. Solid State and X-Ray Diffraction
20.1 Introduction
20.1.1 Crystal Structure
20.2 Crystal Systems
20.2.1 Laws of Crystallography
20.3 Crystal Defects
20.3.1 Stoichiometric Defect
20.3.2 Non-stoichiometric Defect
20.4 X-Ray Diffraction
20.4.1 Introduction
20.4.2 Principle
20.4.3 X-ray Diffraction of Crystals and Bragg’s Equation
20.4.4 Determination of Crystal Structure with Bragg’s Equation
20.4.5 X-ray Diffraction Methods
20.4.6 Instrumentation of X-ray
20.5 Application of X-ray Diffraction
20.6 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short Answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
21. Green Chemistry
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry
21.3 Importance of Green Synthesis
21.3.1 Methods for Green Synthesis
21.3.2 Applications of Green Synthesis
21.4 Greenhouse Concepts
21.4.1 Types of Greenhouse
21.5 Greenhouse Gases and Greenhouse Effect
21.5.1 Natural Greenhouse Effect
21.5.2 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
21.5.3 Greenhouse Gas Effect
21.5.4 Requirements for Greenhouse
21.6 Carbon Sequestration
21.6.1 Importance of Carbon Sequestration
21.7 Why Carbon Dioxide is a Major Problem
21.8 Review Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Multiple-choice Questions
Short answer Questions
Descriptive Questions
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