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Contents
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     Preface
     Acknowledgments
     Abbreviations
1   Introduction
  1.1   Background and Motivation
  1.1.1   Line-of-Sight Radars
  1.1.2   Coverage Limitations
  1.1.3   Beyond the Horizon
  1.2   OTH Radar Principles
  1.2.1   Operational Concept
  1.2.2   General Characteristics
  1.2.3   Practical Applications
  1.3   HF Radar Equation
  1.3.1   Slant Range
  1.3.2   Transmit Power
  1.3.3   Antenna Gains
  1.3.4   Target RCS
  1.3.5   Integration Time
  1.3.6   Total Losses
  1.3.7   Propagation Factor
  1.3.8   Ambient Noise
  1.3.9   Numerical Example
  1.4   Nominal System Capabilities
  1.4.1   Minimum and Maximum Range
  1.4.2   Dwell Illumination Region
  1.4.3   Resolution and Accuracy
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   Part I   Fundamental Principles
2   Skywave Propagation
  2.1   The Ionosphere
  2.1.1   Historical Overview
  2.1.2   Formation and Structure
  2.1.3   The D-, E-, and F-Regions
  2.2   Spatial and Temporal Variability
  2.2.1   Radio Sounding at Vertical Incidence
  2.2.2   Measurements and Models
  2.2.3   Disturbances and Storms
  2.3   Oblique Propagation
  2.3.1   Equivalence Relationships
  2.3.2   Point-to-Point Links
  2.3.3   Frequency, Elevation, and Ground Range
  2.4   Ionospheric Modes
  2.4.1   Ordinary and Extraordinary Waves
  2.4.2   Multipath Propagation
  2.4.3   Amplitude and Phase Fading
3   System Characteristics
  3.1   Preliminary Considerations
  3.1.1   Configuration and Site Selection
  3.1.2   Radar Waveforms
  3.1.3   Out-of-Band Emissions
  3.2   Radar Architecture
  3.2.1   Transmit System
  3.2.2   Receive System
  3.2.3   Array Calibration
  3.3   Frequency Management
  3.3.1   Propagation-Path Assessment
  3.3.2   Channel Occupancy and Noise
  3.3.3   Ionospheric Mode Structure
  3.4   Historical Perspective
  3.4.1   Past and Present Systems
  3.4.2   OTH Radar in Australia
  3.4.3   Future Prospects
4   Conventional Processing
  4.1   Signal Environment
  4.1.1   Target Echoes
  4.1.2   Clutter Returns
  4.1.3   Noise and Interference
  4.2   Standard Routines
  4.2.1   Pulse Compression
  4.2.2   Array Beamforming
  4.2.3   Doppler Processing
  4.3   Operational Considerations
  4.3.1   Air and Surface Tasks
  4.3.2   Transient Disturbance Mitigation
  4.3.3   Data Extrapolation and Signal Conditioning
  4.4   Detection and Tracking
  4.4.1   Constant False-Alarm Rate Processing
  4.4.2   Threshold Detection and Peak Estimation
  4.4.3   Tracking and Coordinate Registration
5   Surface-Wave Radar
  5.1   General Characteristics
  5.1.1   Principle of Operation
  5.1.2   Architecture and Capabilities
  5.1.3   Practical Applications
  5.2   Propagation Mechanism
  5.2.1   Short and Long Distances
  5.2.2   Tropospheric Refraction
  5.2.3   Surface Roughness and Heterogeneity
  5.3   Environmental Factors
  5.3.1   Sea Clutter
  5.3.2   Ionospheric Clutter
  5.3.3   Interference and Noise
  5.4   Practical Implementation
  5.4.1   Configuration and Siting
  5.4.2   Radar Subsystems
  5.4.3   Signal and Data Processing
  5.5   Operational Considerations
  5.5.1   Radar Cross Section
  5.5.2   Multi-Frequency Operation
  5.5.3   Example Systems
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  Part II   Signal Description
6   Wave-Interference Model
  6.1   Deterministic Description
  6.1.1   Background and Scope
  6.1.2   Gross Structure of Composite Wavefields
  6.1.3   Fine Structure of Individual Modes
  6.2   Channel Scattering Function
  6.2.1   Ionospheric Mode Identification
  6.2.2   Nominal Mode Parameters
  6.2.3   Fine Structure Observations
  6.3   Resolving Fine Structure
  6.3.1   Signal Representation
  6.3.2   Parameter Estimation
  6.3.3   Space-Time MUSIC
  6.4   Experimental Results
  6.4.1   Preliminary Data Analysis
  6.4.2   Model-Fitting Accuracy
  6.4.3   Summary and Discussion
7   Statistical Signal Model
  7.1   Stationary Processes
  7.1.1   Background and Scope
  7.1.2   Measurements on HF Signals
  7.1.3   Extension to Antenna Arrays
  7.2   Diffuse Scattering
  7.2.1   Mathematical Representation
  7.2.2   Varying Ionospheric Structure
  7.2.3   Auto-Correlation Functions
  7.3   Temporal Statistics
  7.3.1   Parameter Estimation Method
  7.3.2   Hypothesis Acceptance Test
  7.3.3   Spatial Homogeneity Assumption
  7.4   Spatial and Space-Time Statistics
  7.4.1   Correlation Coefficients
  7.4.2   Mean Plane Wavefront
  7.4.3   Space-Time Separability
8   HF Channel Simulator
  8.1   Point and Extended Sources
  8.1.1   Traditional Array-Processing Models
  8.1.2   Coherent and Incoherent Ray Distributions
  8.1.3   Parametric Localization of Distributed Signals
  8.2   Generalized Watterson Model
  8.2.1   Mathematical Formulation and Interpretation
  8.2.2   Temporal and Spatial Fluctuations
  8.2.3   Expected Second-Order Statistics
  8.3   Parameter-Estimation Techniques
  8.3.1   Standard Identification Procedures
  8.3.2   Matched-Field MUSIC Algorithm
  8.3.3   Polynomial Rooting Method
  8.4   Real-Data Application
  8.4.1   Closed-Form Least Squares
  8.4.2   Subspace-Based Approach
  8.4.3   Summary and Discussion
9   Interference Cancelation Analysis
  9.1   Interference and Noise Mitigation
  9.1.1   Spatial Processing
  9.1.2   Popular Techniques
  9.1.3   HF Applications
  9.2   Standard Adaptive Beamforming
  9.2.1   Sample Matrix Inverse Technique
  9.2.2   Practical Implementation Schemes
  9.2.3   Alternative Time-Varying Approach
  9.3   Instantaneous Performance Analysis
  9.3.1   Real-Data Collection
  9.3.2   Intra-CPI Performance Analysis
  9.3.3   Output SINR Improvement
  9.4   Statistical Performance Analysis
  9.4.1   Framing Schemes
  9.4.2   Batch Schemes
  9.4.3   Operational Issues
  9.5   Simulated Performance Prediction
  9.5.1   Multi-Channel Model Parameters
  9.5.2   Impact of Wavefront Distortions
  9.5.3   Summary and Discussion
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Part III   Processing Techniques
10   Adaptive Beamforming
10.1   Essential Concepts
10.1.1   Optimum and Adaptive Filters
10.1.2   Homogeneous Gaussian Case
10.1.3   Real-World Environments
10.2   Problem Formulation
10.2.1   Interference and Clutter Mitigation
10.2.2   Multi-Channel Data Model
10.2.3   Standard Adaptive Beamforming
10.3   Time-Varying Approaches
10.3.1   Stochastic Constraints
10.3.2   Time-Varying Spatial Adaptive Processing
10.3.3   Experimental Results
10.4   Post-Doppler Techniques
10.4.1   Motivating Practical Application
10.4.2   Range-Dependent Adaptive Beamforming
10.4.3   Extended Data Analysis
11   Space-Time Adaptive Processing
11.1   STAP Architectures
11.1.1   Slow-Time STAP
11.1.2   Fast-Time STAP
11.1.3   3D-STAP
11.2   Data Model
11.2.1   Composite Signal
11.2.2   Cold Clutter
11.2.3   Hot Clutter
11.3   Mitigation Techniques
11.3.1   Standard Schemes
11.3.2   Alternative Procedures
11.3.3   Simulation Results
11.4   Post-Doppler STAP Implementation
11.4.1   Algorithm Description
11.4.2   Experimental Results
11.4.3   Discussion
12   GLRT Detection Schemes
12.1   Problem Description
12.1.1   Background and Motivation
12.1.2   Traditional Hypothesis Test
12.1.3   Alternative Binary Tests
12.2   Measurement Models
12.2.1   Disturbance Process
12.2.2   Useful Signal
12.2.3   Coherent Interference
12.3   Processing Schemes
12.3.1   One-and Two-Step GLRT
12.3.2   Partially Homogeneous Case
12.3.3   Joint Data-Set Detection
12.4   Practical Applications
12.4.1   Spatial Processing
12.4.2   Temporal Processing
12.4.3   Hybrid Technique
13   Blind Waveform Estimation
13.1   Problem Formulation
13.1.1   Multipath Model
13.1.2   Processing Objectives
13.1.3   Motivating Example
13.2   Standard Techniques
13.2.1   Blind System Identification
13.2.2   Blind Signal Separation
13.2.3   Discussion
13.3   GEMS Algorithm
13.3.1   Noiseless Case
13.3.2   Operational Procedure
13.3.3   Computational Complexity
13.4   SIMO Experiment
13.4.1   Data Collection
13.4.2   Signal-Copy Methods
13.4.3   Application of GEMS
13.5   MIMO Experiment
13.5.1   Data Collection
13.5.2   Source and Multipath Separation
13.5.3   Radar Application
13.6   Single-Site Geolocation
13.6.1   Background and Motivation
13.6.2   Data Collection
13.6.3   Geolocation Method
13.6.4   Summary and Future Work
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 Part IV   Appendixes and Bibliography
  A   Sample ACS Distribution
  B   Space-Time Separability
  C   Modal Decomposition
      Bibliography
      Index
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