Footnotes
Chapter 1
1 H. H. Fawcett and W. S. Wood, Safety and Accident Prevention in Chemical Operations, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1982), p. 1.
2 T. A. Kletz, “Eliminating Potential Process Hazards,” Chemical Engineering (Apr. 1, 1985).
3 Kletz, “Eliminating Potential Process Hazards.”
4 Kletz, “Eliminating Potential Process Hazards.”
5 The 100 Largest Losses, 1972–2001: Large Property Damage Losses in the Hydrocarbon-Chemical Industries, 20th ed., Marsh’s Risk Consulting Practice, Feb. 2003.
6 Kletz, “Eliminating Potential Process Hazards.”
7 Modern site layouts require sufficient separation of plants within the site to minimize risks of multiple exposures.
8 Kletz, “Eliminating Potential Process Hazards.”
9 One Hundred Largest Losses: A Thirty-Year Review of Property Losses in the Hydrocarbon-Chemical Industries (Chicago: M & M Protection Consultants, 1986), p. 3.
10 One Hundred Largest Losses, p. 10.
11 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Engineering Design for Process Safety (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1993).
12 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Inherently Safer Chemical Processes: A Life Cycle Approach, 2nd ed. (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2009).
13 Occupational Safety and Health Administration, The Pasadena Accident: A Report to the President (Washington, DC: US Department of Labor, 1990).
14 D. Holmstrom, F. Altamirano, J. Banks, G. Joseph, M. Kaszniak, C. Mackenzie, R. Shroff, H. Cohen, and S. Wallace, “CSB Investigation of the Explosions and Fire at the BP Texas City Refinery on March 23, 2005,” Process Safety Progress (2006), 25(4): 345–349.
15 “Investigation Report—T2 Laboratories, Inc. Runaway Reaction,” U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board, Report No. 2008-3-I-FL, Sept. 2009.
16 “Investigation Report—Sugar Dust Explosion and Fire,” U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board, Report No. 2008-05-I-GA, Sept. 2009.
17 “CSB Reports Chemical Dust Explosions Are a Serious Problem,” http://www.csb.gov/newsroom/detail.aspx?nid=272&SID=0&pg=1&F.
18 One Hundred largest losses.
Chapter 2
1 Phillip L. Williams, Robert C. James, and Stephen M. Roberts, eds., The Principles of Toxicology: Environmental and Industrial Applications, 2nd ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000).
2 D. J. Finney, Probit Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), p. 23.
3 N. A. Eisenberg, Vulnerability Model: A Simulation System for Assessing Damage Resulting from Marine Spills, NTIS Report AD-A015-245 (Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service, 1975).
4 ACGIH, 2009 TLVs and BEIs.
5 Finney, Probit Analysis, p. 20.
6 J. T. Martin, “The Problem of the Evaluation of Rotenone-Containing Plants. VI. The Toxicity of l-Elliptone and of Poisons Applied Jointly, with Further Observations on the Rotenone Equivalent Method of Assessing the Toxicity of Derris Root,” Ann. Appl. Biol. (1942), 29: 69–81.
Chapter 3
1 www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode.
2 J. B. Olishifski, ed., Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 2nd ed. (Chicago: National Safety Council, 1979), pp. 758–777.
3 Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR 68, subpart B (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, June 20, 1996).
4 Daniel A. Crowl, “Consequence Modeling for the EPA Risk Management Plan (RMP),” Process Safety Progress (Spring 1997), pp. 1–5.
5 David A. Moore, “Security,” Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th ed., Don W. Green and Robert H. Perry, eds. (New York: McGraw-Hill), pp. 23–104 to 23–109.
6 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Managing and Analyzing the Security Vulnerabilities of Fixed Chemical Sites (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2002).
7 R. J. Lewis, ed., Sax’s Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 11th ed. (New York: Wiley, 2004).
8 David M. Himmelblau and James B. Riggs, Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering, 7th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004), app. G.
9 R. Craig Matthiessen, “Estimating Chemical Exposure Levels in the Workplace,” Chemical Engineering Progress (Apr. 1986), p. 30.
10 Steven R. Hanna and Peter J. Drivas, Guidelines for the Use of Vapor Cloud Dispersion Models, 2nd ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1996).
11 Louis J. Thibodeaux, Environmental Chemodynamics, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1996), p. 85.
12 Gordon M. Barrow, Physical Chemistry, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), p. 19.
13 Matthiessen, “Estimating Chemical Exposure,” p. 33.
14 Matthiessen, “Estimating Chemical Exposure,” p. 33.
15 NIOSH Respirator Selection Logic, DHHS-NIOSH Publication 2005-100 (Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, 2004).
16 Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice, 27th ed. (Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010).
17 Sax, Dangerous Properties, p. 28.
18 Matthieson, “Estimating Chemical Exposure,” p. 33.
Chapter 4
1 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Consequence Analysis of Chemical Releases (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1999).
2 Sam Mannan, ed., Lees’ Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 3rd ed. (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2005), p. 15/7.
3 Robert H. Perry and Don W. Green, Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008), pp. 8–59.
4 N. H. Chen, Industrial Engineering and Chemistry Fundamentals (1979), 18: 296.
5 W. B. Hooper, Chemical Engineering (Aug. 24, 1981), pp. 96–100.
6 W. B. Hooper, Chemical Engineering (Nov. 7, 1988), pp. 89–92.
7 W. B. Hooper, Chemical Engineering (Aug. 24, 1981), pp. 96–100.
8 W. B. Hooper, Chemical Engineering (Nov. 7, 1988), pp. 89–92.
9 Robert H. Perry and Cecil H. Chilton, Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997), pp. 10–16.
10 Octave Levenspiel, Engineering Flow and Heat Exchange, 2nd ed. (New York: Springer, 1998), p. 43.
11 Crane Co., Flow of Fluids.
12 Levenspiel, Engineering Flow and Heat Exchange, 2nd ed. (1998), p. 46.
13 Levenspiel, Engineering Flow and Heat Exchange, 2nd ed. (1998) p. 46.
14 Keith and Crowl, “Estimating Sonic Gas Flow Rates.”
15 Levenspiel, Engineering Flow and Heat Exchange, 2nd ed. (1998), p. 45.
16 Crane Co., Flow of Fluids.
17 J. M. Smith and H. C. Van Ness, Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, 6th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000).
18 Hans K. Fauske, “Flashing Flows or: Some Practical Guidelines for Emergency Releases,” Plant/Operations Progress (July 1985), p. 133.
19 Trevor A. Kletz, “Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosions,” in Eleventh Loss Prevention Symposium (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1977).
20 CCPS, Guidelines for Consequence Analysis of Chemical Releases (1999).
Chapter 5
1 H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 256.
2 Carslaw and Jaeger, Conduction of Heat, p. 261.
3 Carslaw and Jaeger, Conduction of Heat, p. 267.
4 Frank P. Lees, Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2nd ed. (London: Butterworths, 1996), p. 15/106.
5 Lees, Loss Prevention, p. 15/107.
6 Lees, Loss Prevention, p. 15/107.
7 O. G. Sutton, Micrometeorology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953), p. 286.
8 F. Pasquill, Atmospheric Diffusion (London: Van Nostrand, 1962).
9 EPA, RMP Offsite Consequence Analysis Guidance (Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, 1996).
10 R. E. Britter and J. McQuaid, Workbook on the Dispersion of Dense Gases (Sheffield, United Kingdom: Health and Safety Executive, 1988).
11 Britter and McQuaid, Workbook on the Dispersion of Dense Gases.
12 Hanna and Drivas, Guidelines for Use of Vapor Cloud Dispersion Models.
13 J. A. Havens and T. O. Spicer, Development of an Atmospheric Dispersion Model for Heavier than Air Gas Mixtures, USCG Report CG D 22 85 (Washington, DC: United States Coast Guard Headquarters, 1985).
14 NIOSH, NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, 2005).
15 EPA, RMP Offsite Consequence Analysis Guidance (Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, 1996).
16 D. K. Craig, J. S. Davis, R. DeVore, D. J. Hansen, A. J. Petrocchi, and T. J. Powell, “Alternative Guideline Limits for Chemicals without Environmental Response Planning Guidelines,” AIHA Journal (1995), 56.
17 D. Bruce Turner, Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates (Cincinnati: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1970), p. 31.
Chapter 6
1 Large Property Damage Losses in the Hydrocarbon-Chemical Industry: A Thirty Year Review (New York: J. H. Marsh & McLennan, 1998).
2 Satyanarayana and Rao, “Improved Equation to Estimate Flash Points of Organic Compounds.”
3 H. Le Chatelier, “Estimation of Firedamp by Flammability Limits,” Ann. Mines (1891), ser. 8, 19: 388–395.
4 C. V. Mashuga and D. A. Crowl, “Derivation of Le Chatelier’s Mixing Rule for Flammable Limits,” Process Safety Progress (2000), 19(2): 112–117.
5 M. G. Zabetakis, S. Lambiris, and G. S. Scott, “Flame Temperatures of Limit Mixtures,” in Seventh Symposium on Combustion (London: Butterworths, 1959), p. 484.
6 M. G. Zabetakis, “Fire and Explosion Hazards at Temperature and Pressure Extremes,” AICHE Inst. Chem. Engr. Symp., ser. 2, Chem. Engr. Extreme Cond. Proc. Symp. (1965), pp. 99–104.
7 G. W. Jones, “Inflammation Limits and Their Practical Application in Hazardous Industrial Operations,” Chem. Rev. (1938), 22(1): 1–26.
8 T. Suzuki, “Empirical Relationship Between Lower Flammability Limits and Standard Enthalpies of Combustion of Organic Compounds,” Fire and Materials (1994), 18: 333–336.
9 T. Suzuki and K. Koide, “Correlation between Upper Flammability Limits and Thermochemical Properties of Organic Compounds,” Fire and Materials (1994), 18: 393–397.
10 Travis J. Hansen and Daniel A. Crowl, “Estimation of the Flammable Zone Boundaries for Flammable Gases,” Process Safety Progress (June 2010), 29: 3.
11 Hansen and Crowl, “Estimation of the Flammable Zone Boundaries.”
12 ASTM E918-83, Standard Practice for Determining Limits of Flammability of Chemicals at Elevated Temperature and Pressure (W. Conshocken, PA: ASTM, 2005).
13 Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations (Chicago: National Safety Council, 1974).
14 Frank P. Lees, Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2nd ed. (Boston: Butterworths, 1996).
15 J. H. Borgoyne, “The Flammability of Mists and Sprays,” Chemical Process Hazards (1965), 2: 1.
16 S. Mannan, ed., Lees’ Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 3rd ed. (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2005), p. A1/48.
17 Lees, Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, p. 17/265.
18 Bartknecht, Explosions, p. 27.
19 W. E. Baker, Explosions in Air (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973); S. Glasstone, The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (Washington, DC: US Atomic Energy Commission, 1962).
20 Guidelines for Evaluating the Characteristics of Vapor Cloud Explosions, Flash Fires, and BLEVEs (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1994).
21 Q. A. Baker, C. M. Doolittle, G. A. Fitzgerald, and M. J. Tang, “Recent Developments in the Baker-Strehlow VCE Analysis Methodology,” Process Safety Progress (1998), 17(4): 297.
22 D. A. Crowl, “Calculating the Energy of Explosion Using Thermodynamic Availability,” Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries (1992), 5(2): 109–118.
23 M. V. Sussman, Availability (Exergy) Analysis (Lexington, MA: Mulliken House, 1981).
24 H. L. Brode, “Blast Waves from a Spherical Charge,” Physics of Fluids (1959), 2: 17.
25 D. A. Crowl, “Calculating the Energy of Explosion.”
26 Clancey, “Diagnostic Features of Explosion Damage.”
27 Richard W. Prugh, “Evaluation of Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosion Hazards,” International Conference on Vapor Cloud Modeling (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1987), p. 713.
28 Mannan, ed., Lees’ Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 3rd ed., p. 17/134.
29 Mannan, ed., Lees’ Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 3rd ed., p. 17/140.
30 Prugh, “Evaluation of Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosion Hazards,” p. 714.
31 Mannan, ed., Lees’ Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 3rd ed., p. 17/167; Bodurtha, Industrial Explosion Prevention and Protection (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980), p. 99.
Chapter 7
1 NFPA 69, Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems, 1997 ed. (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997).
2 J. A. Cross, Electrostatics: Principles, Problems, and Applications (Bristol: Adam Higler, 1987).
3 T. B. Jones and J. L. King, Powder Handling and Electrostatics (Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers, 1991).
4 B. Maurer, “Discharges due to Electrostatic Charging of Particles in Large Storage Silos,” German Chemical Engineering (1979), 3: 189–195.
5 M. Glor and B. Maurer, “Ignition Tests with Discharges from Bulked Polymeric Granules in Silos (Cone Discharge),” Journal of Electrostatics (1993), 30: 123–134.
6 P. Boschung, W. Hilgner, G. Luttgens, B. Maurer, and A. Wider, “An Experimental Contribution to the Question of the Existence of Lightning-like Discharges in Dust Clouds,” Journal of Electrostatics (1977), 3: 303–310.
7 L. G. Britton, Avoiding Static Ignition Hazards in Chemical Operations (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1999).
8 F. G. Eichel, “Electrostatics,” Chemical Engineering (Mar. 13, 1967), p. 153.
9 API RP 2003, Protection Against Ignitions Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents (Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute, 1991).
10 Expert Commission for Safety in the Swiss Chemical Industry, “Static Electricity: Rules for Plant Safety,” p. 1.
11 NFPA 70, The National Electrical Code (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2008).
12 NFPA 13, Installation of Sprinkler Systems (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2010).
13 D. C. Kirby and J. L. De Roo, “Water Spray Protection for a Chemical Processing Unit: One Company’s View,” Plant/Operations Progress (Oct. 1984), 13(4).
14 Orville M. Slye, “Loss Prevention Fundamentals for the Process Industry,” paper presented at AIChE Symposium, New Orleans, LA, March 6–10, 1988.
15NFPA 1, Fire Code (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2009).
Chapter 8
1 Improving Reactive Hazard Management (Washington, DC: US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board, October 2002).
2 R.W. Johnson, S.W. Rudy, and S. D. Unwin, Essential Practices for Managing Chemical Reactivity Hazards (New York: AIChE Center for Chemical Process Safety, 2003).
3 Lewis E. Johnson and James K. Farr, “CRW 2.0: A Represetative-Compound Approach to Functionality-Based Prediction of Chemical Hazards,” Process Safety Progress (Sept. 2008), 27(3): 212–218.
4 D. L. Townsend and J. C. Tou, “Thermal Hazard Evaluation by an Accelerating Rate Calorimeter,” Thermochimica Acta, 37 (1980), pp. 1–30.
5 US Patent 4,208,907, June 24, 1980.
6 US Patent 4,439,048, March 27, 1984.
7 H. G. Fisher et al., Emergency Relief System Design Using DIERS Technology (New York: AIChE Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems, 1992).
8 Johnson, et al., Essential Practices for Managing Reactivity Hazards.
9 Problem statement from Johnson et al., Essential Practices for Managing Chemical Reactivity Hazards.
Chapter 9
1 Marx Isaacs, “Pressure Relief Systems,” Chemical Engineering (Feb. 22, 1971), pp. 113–124.
2 API RP 521, Guide for Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute, 1997), pp. 1–3.
3 Robert Kern, “Pressure-Relief Valves for Process Plants,” Chemical Engineering (Feb. 28, 1977), pp. 187–194.
4 Harold G. Fisher, “DIERS Research Program on Emergency Relief Systems,” Chemical Engineering Progress (Aug. 1985), pp. 33–36.
7 API 520, Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refineries, pt. 2, Installation, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute, 1994).
8 S. S. Grossel, “Design and Sizing of Knockout Drums/Catchtanks for Reactor Emergency Relief Systems,” Plant/Operations Progress (July 1986).
9 API RP 521, Guide for Pressure-Relieving and Depressurizing Systems, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute, 1997), pp. 63–67.
10 Soen H. Tan, “Flare System Design Simplified,” Hydrocarbon Processing (Jan. 1967).
11 R. E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958).
12 D. Q. Kern, Process Heat Transfer (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950).
Chapter 10
1 API RP 520, Recommended Practice for the Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Systems in Refineries, 6th ed. (Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute, 1993).
2 R. Darby and K. Molavi, “Viscosity Correction Factor for Safety Relief Valves,” Process Safety Progress (1997), 16(2).
3 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1998).
4 API RP 520, Recommended Practice.
5 Marx Isaacs, “Pressure Relief Systems,” Chemical Engineering (Feb. 22, 1971), p. 113.
6 H. K. Fauske, “Flashing Flows or: Some Practical Guidelines for Emergency Releases,” Plant Operations Progress (July 1985), 4(3).
7 J.C. Leung, “Simplified Vent Sizing Equations for Emergency Relief Requirements in Reactors and Storage Vessels,” AIChE Journal (1986), 32(10): 1622.
8 J. C. Leung, “Simplified Vent Sizing.”
9 Leung, “Simplified Vent Sizing.”
10 J. E. Huff, “Emergency Venting Requirements,” Plant/Operations Progress (1982), 1(4): 211.
11 Hans K. Fauske, “A Quick Approach to Reactor Vent Sizing,” Plant/Operations Progress (1984), 3(3), and “Generalized Vent Sizing Nomogram for Runaway Chemical Reactions,” Plant/Operations Progress (1984), 3(4).
12 W. J. Boyle Jr., “Sizing Relief Area for Polymerization Reactors,” Chemical Engineering Progress (Aug. 1967), 63(8): 61.
13 J. C. Leung and H. K. Fauske, “Runaway System Characterization and Vent Sizing Based on DIERS Methodology,” Plant/Operations Progress (Apr. 1987), 6(2).
14 H. G. Fisher and J. C. Leung, personal communication, January 1989.
15 Crosby Engineering Handbook, www.tycoflowcontrol-na.com/ld/CROMC-0296-US.pdf.
16 “Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refineries, Part 1, Sizing and Selection,” API Recommended Practice 520, 7th ed. (2000).
17 Buckling Pin Relief Valve, www.bucklingpin.com/.
18 Rupture Pin Technology, www.rupturepin.com/.
19 Lloyd’s Register Celerity3 Inc., www.lrenergy.org/celerity_3.aspx.
20 NFPA 68, Guide for Venting of Deflagrations (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1998).
21 Richard R. Schwab, “Recent Developments in Deflagration Venting Design,” in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Preventing Major Chemical Accidents, John L. Woodward, ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1987), p. 3.101.
22 Ian Swift and Mike Epstein, “Performance of Low Pressure Explosion Vents,” Plant/Operations Progress (Apr. 1987), 6(2).
23 NFPA 68, Guide for Venting of Deflagrations (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1998).
24 Leung, “Simplified Vent Sizing Equations.”
25 OSHA 1910.106, Flammable and Combustible Liquids (Washington, DC: US Department of Labor, 1996).
26 API Standard 2000, Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks (Nonrefrigerated and Refrigerated), 5th ed. (Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute, 1998); and NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2000).
27 R. A. Crozier, “Sizing Relief Valves for Fire Emergencies,” Chemical Engineering (Oct. 28, 1985).
28 API RP 520, Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refineries, 6th ed. (Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute, 1993).
29 W. Y. Wong, “Fires, Vessels, and the Pressure Relief Valve,” Chemical Engineering (May 2000).
30 Leung, “Simplified Vent Sizing Equations.”
Chapter 11
1 Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures, 3rd ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2008).
2 Dow’s Fire and Explosion Index Hazard Classification Code, 7th ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1994).
3 Dow’s Chemical Exposure Index Guide, 1st ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1998).
4 Dow’s Chemical Exposure Index Guide.
5 Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures, 3rd ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2008).
6 “Compliance Guidelines and Recommendations for Process Safety Management (Nonmandatory),” Code of Federal Regulations, OSHA 29 CFR 1926.64 App C, 127–138.
7 Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures, Third Edition, Center for Chemical Process Safety of the Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures, 3rd ed. (Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2008).
8 “Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals,” Code of Federal Regulations, OSHA 29 CFR 1910.119, Federal Register, 364–385.
9 R. Collins, “Process Hazard Analysis Quality,” Process Safety Progress, Vol 29 (2), June 2004, 113–117.
10 Problem provided courtesy of Rajagopalan Srinivasan of the University of Singapore.
11 Problem provided courtesy of Alvin Yee of the University of Singapore.
Chapter 12
1 B. Roffel and J. E. Rijnsdorp, Process Dynamics, Control, and Protection (Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science, 1982), p. 381.
2 S. S. Grossel and D. A. Crowl, eds. Handbook of Highly Toxic Materials Handling and Management (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1995), p. 264.
3 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures, 3rd ed., (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2009).
4 J. B. Fussell and W. E. Vesely, “A New Methodology for Obtaining Cut Sets for Fault Trees,” Transactions of the American Nuclear Society (1972), 15.
5 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis, 2nd ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2000).
6 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Layer of Protection Analysis: Simplified Process Risk Assessment, D. A. Crowl, ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2001).
7 W. Bridges and T. Clark, “Key Issues with Implementing LOPA (Layer of Protection Analysis): Perspective from One of the Originators of LOPA,” Proceedings from the AIChE Plant Process Safety Symposium, Paper 19a (2009).
8 A. Dowell and D. Hendershot, “Simplified Risk Analysis—LOPA,” Proceedings from the AIChE Loss Prevention Symposium, Paper 281a (2002).
9 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Simplified Process Risk Assessment: Layer of Protection Analysis, D. A. Crowl, ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2001).
10 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Initiating Events and Independent Protection Layers for LOPA, J. Murphy, ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2010).
Chapter 13
1 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Inherently Safer Processes: A Life Cycle Approach (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2008).
2 D. Hendershot, “An Overview of Inherently Safer Design,” Process Safety Progress (June 2009), 25(2): 98.
3 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Process Safety Documentation (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1995).
4 M. W. Mike and S. Roland, Ethics in Engineering, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996).
5 “AIChE Code of Ethics”, www.aiche.org/About/Code.aspx, 2003.
6 A. S. Blair, “RAGAGEP Beyond Regulation: Good Engineering Practices for the Design and Operation of Plants,” Process Safety Progress, (Dec. 2007), 26(4): 330.
7 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Design Solutions for Process Equipment Failures (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1998).
8 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Engineering Design for Process Safety (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1993).
9 NFPA 68, Venting of Deflagrations (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997).
10 NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1996).
11 API 750, Management of Process Hazards (Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute, 1990).
12 “Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals,” Code of Federal Regulations, 29CFR 1910.119 (57FR23061, June 1, 1992).
13 “Iowa State University Permits,” www.ehs.iastate.edu/cms/default.asp?action=article&ID=300.
14 Trevor Kletz, Learning from Accidents, 3rd ed. (Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001).
15 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Investigation of Chemical Process Incidents, 2nd ed. (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2003).
16 See the sources cited in footnotes 6–11 as well as NFPA 654, Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of Combustible Particulates Solids (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2000).
17 D. Hendershot, “Conflicts and Decisions in the Search for Inherently Safer Process Options,” Process Safety Progress (Jan. 1995), 14(1): 52.
18 Trevor Kletz, Plant Design for Safety: A User-Friendly Approach (New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1990).
19 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Design Solutions for Process Equipment Failures.
20 “Union Oil Amine Absorber Tower—Accident,” TWI Services Company, www.twi.co.uk/content/oilgas_casedown29.html.
21 Samuel Strelzoff and L. C. Pan, “Designing Pressure Vessels,” Chemical Engineering (Nov. 4, 1968), p. 191.
22 Frank P. Lees, Loss Prevention in the Process Industries (Boston: Butterworths, 1983), p. 567.
23 Lees, Loss Prevention, p. 569.
24 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Chemical Reactivity Evaluation and Application to Process Design (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1995).
25 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Facility Siting and Layout (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2003).
26 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Performing Effective Pre-Startup Reviews (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2007).
27 Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), Guidelines for Safe and Reliable Instrumented Protective Systems (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2007).
28 R. Johnson, “Chemical Reactivity Hazards,” Safety and Chemical Engineering Education Committee of AIChE’s Center for Chemical Process Safety (www.SACHE.org, 2005).
29 R. Johnson, “Chemical Reactivity Hazards.”
30 Louvar and Schoeff, “Dust Explosion Control,” Safety and Chemical Engineering Education Committee of AIChE’s Center for Chemical Process Safety www.SACHE.org, 2006.
31 Louvar and Schoeff, “Dust Explosion Control.”
Chapter 14
1 Case Histories of Accidents in the Chemical Industry, v. 1 (Washington, DC: Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, July 1962), p. 106.
2 Case Histories of Accidents in the Chemical Industry, v. 2 (Washington, DC: Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, Jan. 1966), p. 231.
3 Case Histories of Accidents in the Chemical Industry, v. 3 (Washington, DC: Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, Apr. 1970), p. 95.
4 J. F. Louvar, B. Maurer, and G. W. Boicourt, “Tame Static Electricity,” Chemical Engineering Progress (Nov. 1994), pp. 75–81.
5 Louvar et al., “Tame Static Electricity.”
6 Louvar et al., “Tame Static Electricity.”
7 H. L. Jackson et al., “Control of Peroxidizable Compounds,” in Safety in the Chemical Industry, v. 3, Norman V. Steere, ed. (Easton, PA: Division of Chemical Education, American Chemical Society, 1974), pp. 114–117.
8 D. R. Stull, “Linking Thermodynamic and Kinetics to Predict Real Chemical Hazards,” in Safety in the Chemical Industry, pp. 106–110.
9 Case Histories, v. 2, p. 6.
10 Case Histories, v. 3, p. 111.
11 Case Histories, v. 3, p. 121.
12 J. A. Davenport, “A Survey of Vapor Cloud Incidents,” Chemical Engineering Progress (Sept. 1977), pp. 54–63.
13 Davenport, “A Survey of Vapor Cloud Incidents.”
14 Davenport, “A Survey of Vapor Cloud Incidents.”
15 Davenport, “A Survey of Vapor Cloud Incidents.”
16 William G. Garrison, One Hundred Largest Losses: A Thirty-Year Review of Property Damage Losses in the Hydrocarbon Chemical Industries, 9th ed. (Chicago: Marsh & McLennan Protection Consultants, 1986), p. 7.
17 Garrison, One Hundred Largest Losses, p. 7.
18 Garrison, One Hundred Largest Losses, p. 3.
19 Garrison, One Hundred Largest Losses, p. 8.
20 W. H. Doyle, “Instrument-Connected Losses in the CPI,” Instrument Technology (Oct. 1972), pp. 38–42.
21 Trevor Kletz, Learning from Accidents, 3rd ed. (Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001).
22 Walter B. Howard, “Process Safety Technology and the Responsibilities of Industry,” Chemical Engineering Progress (Sept. 1988), pp. 25–33.
23 Case Histories, v. 2, p. 186.
24 Case Histories, v. 2, p. 225.
25 Case Histories, v. 2, p. 113.
26 Hazards of Water, booklet 1 (Chicago: Amoco Oil Company, 1984), p. 20.
27 EPA, How to Prevent Runaway Reactions, Report 550-F99-004 (Aug. 1999). Available at www.epa.gov/ceppo/.
28 CSB, Chemical Manufacturing Incident, Report 1998-06-I-NY. Available at www.chemsafety.gov/reports/2000/morton/index.htm.
29 EPA, Prevention of Reactive Chemical Explosions, Report 550-F00-001. Available at www.epa.gov/ceppo/.
30 T. A. Kletz, What Went Wrong? Case Histories of Process Plant Disasters (Houston: Gulf Publishing, 1985), pp. 182–188.
31 “Union Oil Amine Absorber Tower—Accident,” TWI Services Company, www.twi.co.uk/content/oilgas_casedown29.html.
32 “Texas City Refinery,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_City_Refinery_(BP)#Legal_action.
33 “BP Texas City Incident—Baker Review,” www.hse.gov.uk/leadership/bakerreport.pdf.
34 “T2 Laboratories, Inc. Runaway Reaction,” www.csb.gov/assets/document/T2_Final_Copy_9_17_09.pdf.
35 “Sugar Dust Explosion and Fire,” www.csb.gov/assets/document/Imperial_Sugar_Report_Final_updated.pdf.
36 “Dust Explosion at West Pharmaceutical Services,” www.csb.gov/assets/document/West_Digest.pdf.
37 “CSB Reports Chemical Dust Explosions Are a ‘Serious Problem,’” www.csb.gov/newsroom/detail.aspx?nid=272&SID=0&pg=1&F.
38 Large Property Damage Losses in the Hydrocarbon-Chemical Industries: A Thirty-Year Review (New York: J. H. Marsh & McLennan Inc., 1998).
Appendix A
1Selected from David M. Himmelblau, Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1982).
Appendix C
1This appendix is reproduced (with modifications) from D. A. Crowl, Understanding Explosions (New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2003). Used with permission.
2 O. A. Hougen, K. M. Watson, et al., Chemical Process Principles, pt. 1, Material and Energy Balances, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1954).
3 Hougen et al., Chemical Process Principles.
Appendix E
1 Selected from David Himmelblau, Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003), p. 1057.