Index
A
AC coupling
constant capacitors, 490
direct-conversion receivers, 183–184, 187
transformers, 470
Acceptable quality, 59
Accumulation-mode MOS varactors, 486
Accuracy
DAC, 739
I/Q calibration, 232
inductor equations, 438–439
input matching, 72
integer-N frequency synthesizers, 656
output matching, 73
ACPR in power amplifiers, 756–758
Acquisition range of PLLs, 611, 614
with current-source helpers, 393–394
downconversion, 368–369
conversion gain, 370–377
double-balanced, 369–370
linearity, 387–392
noise, 377–387
with enhanced transconductance, 394–397
with high IP2, 397–405
with low flicker noise, 405–408
upconversion, 416–420
design procedure, 421–424
mixer carrier feedthrough, 420–421
ADCs (analog-to-digital converters) in receivers
AGC range, 836
baseband, 858–859
direct-conversion, 186
resolution, 837
Additive noise
AM, 94
conversion to phase noise, 550–552, 554
I/Q mismatches, 198
Adjacent-channel interference
GSM, 135
IEEE802.11, 149
low-IF receivers, 214
ADS simulator, 439
AGC in receivers
design, 856–861
range, 836–837
Aliasing
passive downconversion mixers, 360–361
power amplifiers, 798
Aligned resultants in AM signals, 97
Alignment of VCO phase, 600–601
AM (amplitude modulation), 93–94
direct-conversion receivers, 189–190
heterodyne receivers, 172–173
AM/AM conversion, 757–758
AM/PM conversion (APC)
concepts, 33–35
polar modulation, 794–795, 799–801
power amplifiers, 757–758
Ampere’s law, 452
Amplitude
direct-conversion receivers, 196
in modulation, 92
oscillators, 505–507
power amplifiers, 757–758
VCO variation, 532
Amplitude modulation (AM), 93–94
direct-conversion receivers, 189–190
heterodyne receivers, 172–173
Amplitude shift keying (ASK), 100, 105
Analog modulation, 93
amplitude, 93–94
phase and frequency, 95–99
Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) in receivers
AGC range, 836
baseband, 858–859
direct-conversion, 186
resolution, 837
Analysis and Simulation of Spiral Inductors and Transformers (ASITIC) simulator, 437–439
Analytic signals, 202
AND gates
current-steering circuits, 683
dual-modulus dividers, 677, 880
phase/frequency detectors, 613–614
Antennas
cellular systems, 122
duplexing method, 130
LNA interface, 258–259
Anti-phase coupling, 582, 584–586, 592
APC (AM/PM conversion)
concepts, 33–35
polar modulation, 794–795, 799–801
power amplifiers, 757–758
ASITIC (Analysis and Simulation of Spiral Inductors and Transformers) simulator, 437–439
ASK (amplitude shift keying), 100, 105
Asymmetries
cascode power amplifiers, 817
direct-conversion receivers, 179, 181, 187–189
heterodyne receivers, 172–174
I/Q mismatches, 194
LO self-mixing, 357
sequence-asymmetric polyphase filters, 221
single-balanced mixers, 398–399
Attenuation
channel, 92
image, 224–225
Auxiliary amplifiers in PLLs, 634–635
Available noise power, 42
Available power gain, 54
Average power in noise, 36
Axis of symmetry, inductors along, 465
B
Balance systems, 12
Baluns
differential LNAs, 315–324
outphasing, 810
power amplifiers, 758–760, 764, 767
Band-pass filters
differential LNAs, 315
FDD, 123–124
heterodyne transmitters, 244–245
Q, 157
transceivers, 158–159
transmitter overview, 156
Band selection in transceivers, 157–159
Band switching LNAs, 262, 312–314
divide-by-2 circuits, 693–696
efficiency, 93
fractional, 176
frequency synthesizers, 663, 842–843, 883
offset PLLs, 672
outphasing, 805
passive upconversion mixers, 410–411
PLL-based modulation, 667–668
polar modulation, 794, 801–802
QPSK, 107
VCO phase noise, 645–646
Barkhausen’s criteria, 503–505, 512, 544, 583
Baseband
ADC resolution, 858–859
AGC gain, 859
DACs, 409
description, 91–92
offset, 414
outphasing, 804
polar modulation, 796–797
QPSK signals, 108–109
Basic design concepts, 7
dynamic range, 60–62
noise. See Noise and noise figure (NF)
nonlinear dynamic systems, 75–77
nonlinearity. See Nonlinearity
passive impedance transformation, 62–63
matching networks, 65–71
quality factor, 63
series-to-parallel conversions, 63–65
scattering parameters, 71–75
time variance, 9–12
units, 7–9
Volterra series, 77–85
Basis functions, 105
BER. See Bit error rate (BER)
Bias
LNA common-gate stage, 280–281
LNA nonlinearity calculations, 325–326
phase noise current source, 565–570
Bipolar transistor noise, 46
GSM, 132
I/Q mismatch, 198
power amplifiers, 756
receiver noise, 834
transmitters, 838
wireless standards, 131
Blind zones with VCOs, 535–536, 846, 869
Blocking
Bluetooth tests, 145–146
GSM requirements, 133–134
with interferers, 19
wideband CDMA, 140–142
Bluetooth standard
frequency channels, 655
GFSK for, 113
ISM band, 130
LOs, 660
overview, 143–147
receivers, 22–24
Bode plots
charge pumps, 619–620
PLLs, 608–609
cascode CS stage, 284–285
coupling between, 430–431
MOS capacitors, 491
outphasing, 810
power amplifiers, 755, 758–759, 815
Bootstrapping, cascode power amplifiers with, 816–817
Bottom-biased PMOS oscillators, 573
Bottom-plate capacitance
inductors, 440
parallel-plate capacitors, 494
Brickwall spectrum, 103
Broadband model of inductors, 457
Broadband noise, 670–671
Buffers
LOs, 380–381, 413, 499, 576–577
Bypass, LNA, 312
C
Calibration of image-reject receivers, 213
Capacitance and capacitors
constant, 490–495
divide-by-2 circuits, 690, 692, 694–696
inductors, 437, 439–444, 461–463, 466–469
input impedance, 9
integer-N synthesizer loop design, 883–885
large-signal impedance matching, 780–781
LNAs
band switching, 312–313
common-gate stage, 280–282
common-source stage, 269–271, 286–287, 291–293
differential, 321
gain switching, 308–309
input, 851
matching networks, 65–69
metal-plate, 493–495
Miller dividers, 703
mixers
downconversion, 352, 376–377, 382–383, 500
with enhanced transconductance, 395–397
port-to-port feedthrough, 339–340
upconversion, 410, 415–416, 422
MOS, 491–493
oscillators, 571
cross-coupled, 514–515
drive capability, 498–499
outphasing, 808–810
parallel-plate, 493–495
phase noise, 555–557
PLL higher-order loops, 625–626
power amplifiers, 754
cascode, 815–817
class B, 765
class E, 772–774
polar modulation, 792, 795–796
positive-feedback, 819–820
predrivers, 864
quality factor, 63
T-lines, 477
transformers, 470–475
varactors, 483–490
VCOs. See Voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs)
divide-by-2 circuits, 692
integer-N synthesizers, 692, 700, 704
LNA feedback paths, 304
LO interface, 576–577
power amplifiers, 865
substrate loss, 450–452, 457–458, 466
transformers, 470–471, 474–475
Capacitively-degenerated differential pairs, 591
Carrier amplifiers, 811
Carrier feedthrough
active mixers, 420–421
passive mixers, 413–416
Carrier frequency, 91
Carrier leakage
direct-conversion transmitters, 232–234
heterodyne transmitters, 244
Carrier power in phase noise, 539
Cartesian feedback, 786–787
Cascade image rejection, 225
Cascaded loops and modulators, 730–732
Cascaded stages
low-IF receivers, 222
noise figure, 52–56
nonlinear, 29–33
transceiver filters, 158
Cascode stages
LNAs, 284–286
common-gate, 277–279
design procedure, 291–296
differential, 318–321
gain switching, 310–311
noise factor, 287–291
pad capacitance, 286–287
power amplifiers, 776–779, 815–819
CCI (co-channel interference), 120
CCK (complementary code keying), 150
CDMA (code-division multiple access), 126
direct-conversion transmitters, 232–233
direct sequence, 126–129
IS-95, 137–139
wideband, 139–143
Cellular systems, 119–120
antenna diversity, 122
co-channel interference, 120
delay spread, 122–123
hand-offs, 120–121
interleaving, 123
path loss and multipath fading, 121–122
transmitters, 91
Center frequency in LC VCOs, 571
CG (common-gate) stage in LNAs, 272–277
cascode stage, 277–279
design procedure, 279–284
gain switching LNAs, 306
variants, 296–300
CG differential LNAs, 315–318
Chang-Park-Kim dividers, 878, 880
Channel charge injection, 631
Channel-length modulation
charge pumps, 633–634
LNA common-gate stage, 275
Channel selection
vs. image rejection, 166–168
transceiver architectures, 157–159
Channelization standards, 130
Channels
attenuation, 92
integer-N synthesizers, 656, 661, 664
mixer bandwidth, 500
mobile RF communications, 119
overlapping frequencies, 150
Characteristic impedance
coplanar lines, 482
microstrips, 479–482
striplines, 483
Charge-and-hold output in charge pumps, 616
Charge equations for varactors, 487
Charge injection, 630–632
Charge pumps, 614–615
channel-length modulation, 633–634
charge injection and clock feedthrough, 630–632
fractional-N synthesizers, 733–738
integer-N synthesizers, 883–884
regulated cascodes, 634–635
Chips, CDMA, 127–128
Chireix’s cancellation technique, 808–809
Circuit simulators
integer-N synthesizers, 884–886
power amplifiers, 757
varactors, 487
Circular inductors, 435
Clapp oscillators, 517
Class A power amplifiers
with harmonic enhancement, 771–772
overview, 760–764
Class-AB latches, 691
Class AB power amplifiers, 767
Class B power amplifiers, 764–767
Class C power amplifiers, 768–770
Class E power amplifiers, 772–775
Class F power amplifiers, 775–776
Clock feedthrough, 630–632
Close-in phase noise, 539–540
Closed-loop control
IS-95 CDMA, 138
polar modulation, 793
Closed-loop transfer functions
integer-N synthesizers, 666
CML (current-mode logic), 683–687
CMOS technology, 2–3
LNA common-gate stage, 275
oscillator frequency range, 498
ring oscillators, 507
Co-channel interference (CCI), 120
Code-division multiple access (CDMA), 126
direct-conversion transmitters, 232–233
direct sequence, 126–129
IS-95, 137–139
wideband, 139–143
Cognitive radios, 199
Coherent detection
IS-95 CDMA, 137
QPSK, 110
Collector efficiency in power amplifiers, 755, 761, 766
Colpitts oscillators, 517
Common-gate (CG) stage in LNAs, 272–277
cascode stage, 277–279
design procedure, 279–284
gain switching LNAs, 306
variants, 296–300
Common-mode current in mixers, 373–374
Common-mode input in LOs, 349
Common-mode noise
active downconversion mixers, 383
active mixers with low flicker noise, 405
Common-mode stability in power amplifiers, 866–867
Common-source stages
LNAs
with inductive degeneration, 284–296
with inductive load, 266–269
with resistive feedback, 269–272
memoryless systems, 12
Communication concepts, 91
analog modulation, 93–99
considerations, 91–93
digital modulation. See Digital modulation
DPSK, 151–152
mobile RF, 119–123
multiple access techniques, 123–130
spectral regrowth, 118–119
wireless standards. See Wireless standards
Compact inductor model, 458
Comparators in power amplifiers, 824
Compensation in fractional-N synthesizers, 718
Complementary code keying (CCK), 150
Compression
gain, 16–20
LNAs, 851–852
in mixer linearity, 388–392
power amplifiers, 757–758, 863–864
receivers, 856
upconverters, 868–869
wideband CDMA, 140
Concentric cylinders model, 457
Conduction angles, 764, 768–769
Constant capacitors, 490–495
Constant-envelope modulation, 112
Constant-envelope waveforms, 802
Constellations
dense, 114–115
signal, 105–112
Continuous-time (CT) approximation
charge pumps, 616
type-II PLLs, 622–623
Continuous tuning, VCOs with, 524–532
Hartley receivers, 253
Miller dividers, 701–703
mismatches, 226
mixers
current-source helpers, 393
downconversion, 339, 348, 350–356, 368–382
linearity, 388–391
power amplifiers, 790
upconversion, 409–410, 414, 416, 868
Conversions
additive noise to phase noise, 550–552, 554
AM/AM, 757–758
AM/PM
concepts, 33–35
polar modulation, 794–795, 799–801
power amplifiers, 757–758
current and voltage, 368–369
series-to-parallel, 63–65
Convolution in phase noise, 560–561
Coplanar lines, 482–483
Cosine signals in image-reject receivers, 200
Cost trends, 2
Counters in pulse swallow dividers, 674–676
Coupled oscillators, 583–589
between bond wires, 430
capacitance. See Capacitive coupling
magnetic. See Magnetic coupling
quadrature oscillators, 581, 590
CPPLLs (charge-pump PLLs), 615–620
continuous-time approximation, 622–623
frequency-multiplying, 623–625
Cross-coupled oscillators, 511–517
phase noise computation, 555
power amplifiers, 820
tail noise, 565–566
time-varying resistance, 553
Cross-coupled pairs
active mixers with low flicker noise, 406
Norton noise equivalent, 548–549
VCOs, 530–531
Cross modulation
description, 20–21
wideband CDMA, 140–141
Cross-talk, 229
Crystal oscillators
integer-N synthesizer design, 881
phase noise, 644
CT (continuous-time) approximation
charge pumps, 616
type-II PLLs, 622–623
Current crowding effect, 448–450
Current domain in single-balanced mixers, 356
Current-driven passive mixers, 366–368
Current impulse
oscillators, 509
in phase noise, 557–559
Current mirroring
active mixers, 395–396
DACs, 741
divide-by-2 circuits, 692
VCOs, 874–876
Current-mode DAC implementation, 741
Current-mode logic (CML), 683–687
Current sources
helpers, 393–394
offset cancellation by, 186
power amplifiers, 752
Current-steering
cross-coupled oscillators, 517
divider design, 683–689
mixer linearity, 388
prescalers, 682
Current-to-voltage (I/V) characteristic of charge pumps, 883–884
Current-to-voltage (I/V) conversion, 368–369
Currents, nonlinear, 81–85
Cyclostationary noise, 552–553, 565
D
D flipflops in phase/frequency detectors, 613
DACs (digital-to-analog converters)
direct-conversion receivers, 185–187
direct-conversion transmitters, 233–234
feedforward, 738–742
upconversion mixer interfaces, 409
Damping factor
class E power amplifiers, 773–774
divide-by-2 circuits, 693
integer-N synthesizers, 665–666, 883
PLL transfer functions, 608
Dangling bonds, 44
dBm, 8–9
DC offsets
active mixers with high IP2, 398–400
AGC, 859
direct-conversion receivers, 181–187
port-to-port feedthrough, 340–341
DCOs (digitally-controlled oscillators), 536
DCRs. See Direct-conversion receivers
DCS1800 standard, 132
Decibels (dB), 7–9
Degenerated differential pairs, 332–333
Degenerated LNA common-source stages
inductive degeneration, 284–296
nonlinearity calculations, 325–329
Degeneration capacitors, 403–404, 591
Delay spread in cellular systems, 122–123
Delayed replicas in IS-95 CDMA, 138
Delays
fractional-N synthesizers, 723–724
integer-N synthesizers, 665–667
OFDM, 115–117
PFD/CP, 629
polar modulation, 793–794, 801
Delta modulators (DMs), 824–825
Demodulation, 92
IS-95 CDMA, 137
QPSK, 110
Demultiplexers in QPSK, 107
Dense constellations, 114–115
Desensitization, 19
Design
active upconversion mixers, 421–424
basic concepts. See Basic design concepts
dividers. See Dividers
LNA cascode CS stage with inductive degeneration, 291–296
LNA common-gate stage, 279–284
oscillators, 571–575
power amplifier. See Power amplifiers (PAs)
transceiver example. See Transceivers
type-II PLLs, 646–647
Despreading in CDMA, 128
DET (double-edge-triggered) flipflops, 742–743
Detectability, 92
Detection, 92
IS-95 CDMA, 137
PFDs. See Phase/frequency detectors (PFDs)
phase detectors, 597–600
polar modulation, 794, 799–800, 826
power amplifier linearization, 789–790
QPSK, 110
Deterministic mismatches
fractional-N synthesizers, 737
up and down current, 637
Device noise
bipolar transistors, 46
MOS transistors, 43–46
resistors, 40–43
Differential circuits, symmetric inductors in, 460–461, 463–464
Differential LNAs, 314–315
common-gate, 315–318
common-source, 318–321
Differential LO phases
oscillators, 501
Differential mixers, 402
Differential oscillators, 518, 585, 589
Differential pairs
charge pumps, 632
current-steering circuits, 683
downconversion mixers, 500
input/output characteristics, 12–13
LNAs, 331–332
Differential power amplifiers, 758–760
Differential PSK (DPSK), 151–152
GMSK and GFSK, 112–113
intersymbol interference, 101–104
OFDM, 115–118
overview, 99–100
QAM, 114–115
quadrature, 107–112
signal constellations, 105–107
Digital-to-analog converters (DACs)
direct-conversion receivers, 185–187
direct-conversion transmitters, 233–234
feedforward, 738–742
upconversion mixer interfaces, 409
Digitally-controlled oscillators (DCOs), 536
Dimensions of inductors, 433–434
Diode-connected devices
active mixers with low flicker noise, 405–406
power amplifiers, 816–817
VCOs, 525–526
Direct-conversion mixers, 344
Direct-conversion receivers, 179
DC offsets, 181–187
even-order distortion, 187–191
flicker noise, 191–194
I/Q mismatch, 194–199
LO leakage, 179–184
mixing spurs, 199
noise figure, 346–348
Direct-conversion transmitters, 227–229
carrier leakage, 232–234
I/Q mismatch, 229–232
mixer linearity, 234–235
mixers, 339–342
modern, 238–243
noise, 238
oscillator pulling, 237–238
TX linearity, 235–236
Direct sequence CDMA, 126–129
Direct sequence SS (DS-SS) communication, 127
Discrete-time (DT) systems, 622–623
Discrete tuning in VCOs, 532–536
Distortion
direct-conversion receivers, 187–191
duty-cycle, 398
harmonic. See Harmonics and harmonic distortion
intersymbol interference, 101–104
outphasing, 808
power amplifier linearization, 787–788
Distributed capacitance
dividers, 694
inductors, 440
LNA common-source stage, 293
varactors, 488–489
Distributed inductor model, 458
Distributed resistance in varactors, 487–489
Dithering in fractional-N synthesizers, 728
Diversity
antenna, 122
IS-95 CDMA, 138
Divide-by-1.25 circuits, 746
Divide-by-1.5 circuits, 743
Divide-by-2 circuits, 878–880
designing, 689–697
direct-conversion transmitters, 239–240
dual-modulus dividers, 677
heterodyne receivers, 175
Miller dividers, 706–707
pulse swallow dividers, 675–676
true single-phase clocking, 697–698
Divide-by-2/3 circuits
dual-modulus dividers, 679
pulse swallow dividers, 676–677
Divide-by-3 circuits
dual-modulus dividers, 677–678
Miller dividers, 706–707
Divide-by-3/4 circuit, 680, 881–882
Divide-by-4 circuits, 177–178
Divide-by-8/9 circuit, 680
Divide-by-15/16 circuit, 681–682
Dividers, 673–674
divide-by-2 circuit, 878–880
divider delay and phase noise, 709–712
dual-modulus, 677–682, 880–881
frequency multiplication, 609–611
injection-locked, 707–709
LO path, 499
logic styles, 683
current-steering circuits, 683–689
divide-by-2 circuits, 689–697
true single-phase clocking, 697–699
Miller, 699–707
prescaler modulus, 682–683
pulse swallow, 673–677
DMs (delta modulators), 824–825
Doherty power amplifiers, 811–813, 818–819
Double-balanced mixers, 348–350
active downconverters, 369–370
active upconverters, 416
capacitive degeneration, 403–404
input offset, 399–400
Miller dividers, 700
passive downconverters, 351–352
passive upconverters, 411, 414
polar modulation power amplifiers, 826
sampling, 356
voltage conversion gain, 377
Double-edge-triggered (DET) flipflops, 742–743
Double-quadrature downconversion
low-IF receivers, 224–226
Weaver architecture, 213
Double-sideband (DSB) mixers, 867
Double-sideband (DSB) noise figure, 344, 853
Double-transformer topology, 822
Down currents and pulses
charge pumps, 614–615, 630–633, 635–637
fractional-N synthesizers, 733–734
integer-N synthesizers, 883
PLL higher-order loops, 625, 627
quantization noise, 739
Down skew in PFD/CP, 627–630
Downbonds, 285
Downconversion and downconversion mixers, 339
active, 368–369
conversion gain, 370–377
double-balanced, 369–370
linearity, 387–392
noise, 377–387
design, 851–856
heterodyne receivers, 160–164, 168–170
image-reject receivers, 206, 210
LO ports, 500
low-IF receivers, 219–221, 224–226
noise figures, 343
passive, 350
current-driven, 366–368
gain, 350–357
input impedance, 364–367
LO self-mixing, 357
noise, 357–364
phase noise, 540–541
and self-corruption of asymmetric signals, 173–175
Weaver architecture, 213
Downlinks, 119
DPSK (differential PSK), 151–152
DR (dynamic range), 60–62
Drain capacitance in large-signal impedance matching, 780
Drain current
LNA common-gate stage, 280
power amplifiers, 768, 771, 773, 776
Drain efficiency in power amplifiers, 755
Drive capability of oscillators, 498–499
DS-CDMA power control, 128–129
DSB (double-sideband) mixers, 867
DSB (double-sideband) noise figure, 344, 853
DT (discrete-time) systems, 622–623
Dual downconversion, 168–170
Dual-gate mixers, 374
Dual-modulus dividers, 677–682, 880
Dual-modulus prescalers, 674–675
Dummy switches for charge pumps, 631
Duplexer filters
FDD systems, 124
offset PLLs, 671
Duplexers and duplexing methods
antennas, 130
time and frequency division duplexing, 123–124
transceivers, 158–159
Duty cycle distortion, 398
Dynamic dividers, 699–702
with inductive load, 702–705
moduli with, 705–707
Dynamic logic in divide-by-2 circuit, 878
Dynamic nonlinearities, 28
Dynamic range (DR), 60–62
Dynamic systems, 14
E
Eddy currents in inductors, 448–449, 452–455, 466
EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution) systems
description, 136–137
polar modulation, 801–802
Edge-triggered devices
DET flipflops, 742–743
phase/frequency detectors, 612–613
EER (envelope elimination and restoration), 790–793
Efficiency
modulation, 93
power amplifiers, 755–756
class AB, 767
class B, 764–767
class C, 768–771
class E, 772–775
class F, 775–776
8-PSK waveforms, 136–137
Electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection devices, 280
Embedded spirals
high-IP2 LNAs, 323–324
transformers, 471
Encoding operations in DS-CDMA, 127
End points in fractional-N synthesizers, 736
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
description, 136–137
polar modulation, 801–802
Enhanced transconductance, active mixers with, 394–397
Envelope-controlled loads, 793
Envelope detection
polar modulation, 794, 799–800, 826
power amplifier linearization, 789–790
Envelope elimination and restoration (EER), 790–793
Envelopes
polar modulation, 793, 795, 825–826
power amplifier linearization, 788–790
QPSK, 110
Error cancellation loops, 783
Error vector magnitude (EVM)
description, 106–107
receivers, 838
ESD (electrostatic discharge) protection devices, 280
Even-order harmonics, 15, 187–191
EVM (error vector magnitude)
description, 106–107
receivers, 838
Excess frequency, 95
Excess phase in VCOs, 581
Excessive noise coefficient, 43
Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) gates, 152
Exclusive-OR (XOR) gates
current-steering circuits, 685–686
phase detectors, 598–599
PLLs, 603
reference doubling, 743
Expansive characteristic, 17
Extrapolation, intermodulation, 27
F
Fading, multipath, 121–123
Far-out phase noise
description, 539–540
offset PLLs, 672
Faraday’s law
inductors, 448
magnetic coupling to substrate, 452
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), 391
FDD (frequency-division duplexing), 123–124
FDMA (frequency-division multiple access), 125
Feedback
direct-conversion transmitters, 232–233
dividers. See Dividers
fractional-N synthesizers, 716, 718–720, 722–723, 725
integer-N synthesizers, 661
LNAs
common-gate, 296–297
gain switching, 311
noise-cancelling, 300–301
resistance, 851
offset cancellation by, 185
oscillators, 502–508, 513, 582–584
polar modulation, 793, 798–800
power amplifiers, 759, 783, 786–787
VCO phases, 601
Feedforward
common-gate LNAs, 298–300
gain switching LNAs, 311
power amplifier linearization, 783–786
quantization noise, 738–742
Feedthrough, mixer
active upconversion, 420–421
passive upconversion, 413–416
port-to-port, 339–343
FFT (Fast Fourier Transform), 391
FH (frequency hopping) in CDMA, 129–130
Field simulations for inductors, 439
Figure of merit (FOM) of VCOs, 570–571
Filters, 101
active mixers with high IP2, 402
Bluetooth, 143–144
differential LNAs, 315
direct-conversion receivers, 179, 184
duplexer, 124
FDD, 123–124
fractional-N synthesizers, 716, 738
front-end band-pass, 124
heterodyne transmitters, 244–245
integer-N synthesizers, 665
LNAs with high-IP2, 323–324
low-IF receivers, 217–224
low-pass, 101
polar modulation, 824–826
power amplifier linearization, 790
Q, 157
transceivers, 157–159
transmitter overview, 156
First-order dependence in AM/PM conversion, 34
First-order Σ Δ modulators, 726
Flat fading, 123
Flat phase noise profiles, 644
Flicker noise, 44–45
active mixers
with current-source helpers, 394
downconversion, 385–387
low, 405–408
direct-conversion receivers, 191–194
low-IF receivers, 215
passive downconversion mixers, 366
quadrature oscillators, 591–592
receiver design, 853–854
VCOs, 642
Floating resonators in VCOs, 531
Floating switches in VCOs, 535, 870
FM (frequency modulation), 95–96
frequency synthesizer spurs, 843–844
heterodyne receivers, 173
narrowband approximation, 96–98
FNSs. See Fractional-N synthesizers (FNSs)
FOM (figure of merit) in VCOs, 570–571
Forward channels, 119
Four-level modulation schemes, 92
Fourier coefficients
cascode output stages, 776
power amplifiers, 770
Fourier series
flicker noise, 563–564
LO waveforms, 368
reference doubling, 743–744
VCOs, 580
Fourier transforms
fractional-N synthesizers, 716–717
mixer gain, 352–353
mixer impedance, 364
power spectral density, 37
quantization noise, 748–749
VCO sidebands, 628
Volterra series, 77–81
Fractional bandwidth
IF, 176
LNA systems, 262
Fractional dividers, 742–743
Fractional-N synthesizers (FNSs), 715
basic concepts, 715–718
basic noise shaping, 722–728
charge pump mismatch, 733–738
higher-order noise shaping, 728–732
modulus randomization, 718–721
out-of-band noise, 732–733
quantization noise, 738–749
Fractional spurs, 716
Free-running VCOs, 655
Frequencies. See also Bandwidth
cellular system reuse, 119–120
divide-by-2 circuits, 693–694
injection-locked dividers, 709
integer-N synthesizers, 664, 881
LNAs, 259
bandwidth, 261–263
cascode stage, 294–296
common-gate stage, 278–279
Miller dividers, 704
mixers. See Mixers
oscillators, 497–498, 503–507, 514, 517
PLLs, 605–606
polar modulation, 794
system-level considerations, 844–848
VCOs, 519–520, 526, 532, 571, 600
wireless standards, 130
Frequency-dependent phase shift, 504, 507
Frequency-dependent values, 73
Frequency detectors (FDs) in PLLs, 602
Frequency deviation, 95
Frequency diversity
cellular systems, 122
IS-95 CDMA, 138
Frequency division, multiphase, 745–748
Frequency-division duplexing (FDD), 123–124
Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), 125
Frequency hopping (FH), 129–130
Frequency-locked loops (FLLs), 602
Frequency modulation (FM), 95–96
frequency synthesizer spurs, 843–844
heterodyne receivers, 173
narrowband approximation, 96–98
Frequency multiplication, 609–611, 623–625
Frequency noise, 732
Frequency responses
LNA systems, 262
oscillators, 512
VCO phase noise, 645
Frequency-selective fading, 123
Frequency shift keying (FSK), 100
direct-conversion receivers, 184, 197–198
noise, 105–106
PLLs, 605–606
Frequency synthesizers, 498
fractional-N. See Fractional-N synthesizers (FNSs)
integer-N. See Integer-N synthesizers
system-level considerations, 840–844
Friis’ equation
LNAs, 264
Fringe capacitance in inductors, 439–440, 461, 463
Fringe capacitors
parallel-plate capacitors, 495
VCOs, 529–530
Front-end band-pass filters, 124
Front-end band-select filters, 158
FSK (frequency shift keying), 100
direct-conversion receivers, 184, 197–198
noise, 105–106
PLLs, 605–606
Full-duplex LNA systems, 260–261
Full scale in dynamic range, 60
Fully-integrated power amplifiers, 770
Fundamentals in harmonic distortion, 15, 34
G
Gain
AGC
design, 856–861
range, 836–837
conversion. See Conversion gain
current-steering circuits, 686
Miller dividers, 703
oscillators, 504–507
transmitter, 838–839
Gain compression, 16–20, 388–392
Gain error in DACs, 741
Gain mismatch
direct-conversion receivers, 196
direct-conversion transmitters, 231–232, 241
image-reject receivers, 209
Gain switching
LNAs, 305–312
receivers, 837
Gap capacitance, 466–467
Gate capacitance
divide-by-2 circuits, 692
power amplifiers, 815
Gate-induced noise current, 43–44
Gate-referred noise voltage, 256
Gate switching in PLLs, 636
Gaussian distribution, 122
Gaussian filters
Bluetooth, 143–144
impulse response, 112
Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK)
Bluetooth, 143
description, 112–113
direct-conversion transmitters, 234–235
Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK)
Bluetooth, 143
description, 112–113
direct-conversion transmitters, 234–235
Generic transmitter upconversion requirements, 408
Gilbert cell in upconversion mixers, 418
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
adjacent-channel interference, 135
blocking requirements, 133–134
description, 132–133
EDGE, 136–137
intermodulation requirements, 134–135
Gm oscillators, 516–517
GMSK (Gaussian minimum shift keying)
Bluetooth, 143
description, 112–113
direct-conversion transmitters, 234–235
Ground inductances in LNAs, 260, 281
Grounded shield inductors, 435, 466–467
GSM. See Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
GSM/EDGE mask margins, 801
H
Hand-offs
cellular systems, 120–121
IS-95 CDMA, 139
Handheld units, 119
Hard transistors, 776
Harmonics and harmonic distortion, 14–16
AM/PM conversion, 34
class A power amplifiers, 771–772
class E power amplifiers, 775
class F power amplifiers, 775–776
direct-conversion transmitters, 241
heterodyne transmitters, 244–246
narrowband systems, 25
phase noise, 564–565
Hartley architecture
calibration, 213
image-reject receivers, 205–210
low-IF receivers, 215–216
Heterodyne receivers, 160–161
dual downconversion, 168–170
high-side and low-side injection, 164–166
image problem, 161–164
image rejection, 166–168
mixers, 342
sliding-IF, 174–178
zero second IFs, 171–174
Heterodyne transmitters, 244
carrier leakage, 244
mixing spurs, 245–248
HFSS simulator for inductors, 439
High currents in power amplifiers, 754–755
High-efficiency power amplifiers, 770
class A, 771–772
class E, 772–775
class F, 775–776
High IP2, mixers with, 397–405
High-IP2 LNAs, 313–314
differential, 314–315
common-gate, 315–318
common-source, 318–321
improvement methods, 323–324
direct-conversion receivers, 184
image-reject receivers, 203, 206
LNAs with high-IP2, 323–324
mixers with high IP2, 402
High-side injection, 164–166
Higher harmonics in phase noise, 564–565
Higher-order noise shaping, 728–732
Higher-order PLL loops, 625–627
Hilbert transform
image-reject receivers, 201, 203–206
low-IF receivers, 215–217
Hold-mode noise, 359–362
Homodyne architecture, 179
HPFs. See High-pass filters (HPFs)
HSPICE simulator for varactors, 487
I
I/Q mismatches
frequency planning, 848
transmitters, 229–232, 241, 244, 839–840
I/V (current-to-voltage) characteristic of charge pumps, 883–884
I/V (current-to-voltage) conversion, 368–369
IEEE802.11a/b/g standard, 147–151
IF (intermediate frequency)
heterodyne receivers, 160–162, 168–169
low-IF receivers, 214–217
zero second, 171–178
IF ports, 337
IIP3 (input third intercept points), 26
ILDs (injection-locked dividers), 707–709
IM. See Intermodulation (IM)
Image issues
heterodyne receivers, 161–164, 166–168
low-IF receivers, 224–225
Image-reject receivers (IRRs), 200, 838
90° phase shift, 200–205
calibration, 213
Hartley architecture, 205–210
low-IF, 215–217
Weaver receivers, 210–213
Image-to-signal ratio, 208
Impedance, 9
charge pumps, 634–635
coplanar lines, 482
current sources, 634–635
divide-by-2 circuits, 692–693
downconversion mixers, 500
large signals, 780–781
matching networks, 69
microstrips, 479–482
power amplifiers, 780–782, 809, 812–813, 821
T-lines, 478
Impedance transformation
passive, 62–63
matching networks, 65–71
quality factor, 63
series-to-parallel conversions, 63–65
power amplifiers, 753
Impulse sensitivity function in phase noise, 559, 563
IMT-2000 air interface, 139–143
In-band blockers in GSM, 133
In-band interferers, 158
In-band loss, 158
In-band noise in fractional-N synthesizers, 728
In-channel IP3, 835
In-loop PLL modulation, 667–669
In-phase coupling, 582, 585, 588, 592
Incident waves, 71–73
basic structure, 431–434
capacitive coupling to substrate, 450–452, 457–458
cross-coupled oscillators, 514
divide-by-2 circuits, 692–696
equations, 436–439
geometries, 435
with ground shields, 466–467
LNAs
common-gate, 281
common-source, 266–269, 291, 294
differential, 320–322
parasitic, 260
loss mechanisms, 444–455
magnetic coupling to substrate, 452–455, 457–458
metal resistance, 444–448
Miller dividers, 702–705
mixers
enhanced transconductance, 396–397
passive upconversion, 412–413
modeling, 455–460
off-chip, 430–431
one-port oscillators, 511
outphasing, 808–810
parasitic capacitances, 439
power amplifiers, 752–755, 765–767, 815, 817
skin effect, 448–450
stacked, 467–470
symmetric, 460–466
T-lines, 477
Inductive degeneration in LNAs, 284–296, 310
Industrial-scientific-medical (ISM) band, 130
Infradyne system, 164
Injected noise, 562–563
Injection-locked dividers (ILDs), 707–709
Injection-locked power amplifiers, 820–821
Injection locking in quadrature oscillators, 592–593
Injection pulling between oscillators, 237, 589
Input capacitance
cross-coupled oscillators, 514
power amplifiers, 754, 819, 864
Input impedance, 9
one-port oscillators, 510
PLL-based modulation, 668
Input level range in wireless standards, 131
Input matching
LNAs, 263–266
common-gate, 299
noise-cancelling, 304
power amplifiers, 814
Input/output characteristics of Doherty power amplifiers, 811
Input-referred noise
active downconversion mixers, 381–384, 390
LNAs, 256–257
Input reflection coefficient, 74
Input resistance in LNAs, 308, 851
Input return loss in LNAs, 258–259
Input third intercept points (IIP3), 26
Instantaneous frequency, 95
Integer-N synthesizers, 655, 869
basic, 659–661
considerations, 655–659
dividers. See Dividers
loop design, 882–886
PLL-based modulation, 667–673
settling behavior, 661–664
spur reduction techniques, 664–667
VCO design, 869–877
Integration trends, 2
Integrators
DAC, 739–740
fractional-N synthesizers, 723–724, 728
VCOs, 581
Inter-spiral capacitance in inductors, 468–469
Interference
adjacent-channel, 135
co-channel, 120
with compression, 18–19
with cross modulation, 20–21
direct-conversion receivers, 187
high-IP2 LNAs, 324
integer-N frequency synthesizers, 657
with intermodulation, 21–23
mixers, 341
transceivers, 156–158
Interleaving in cellular systems, 123
Intermediate frequency (IF)
heterodyne receivers, 160–162, 168–169
low-IF receivers, 214–217
zero second, 171–178
in cascades, 30–33
GSM requirements, 134–135
integer-N frequency synthesizers, 658
overview, 21–25
power amplifiers, 757
between receiver blockers, 835
Intermodulation tests
Bluetooth, 146
wideband CDMA, 142
wireless standards, 131–132
Intersymbol interference (ISI), 101–104, 115–116
Interwinding capacitance in inductors, 440–442, 461–463
Inverse Laplace transform, 621
IP2 (second intercept points), 188
IP3 (third intercept points), 25–27
IRR (image rejection ratio), 208–209, 212
IRRs. See Image-reject receivers (IRRs)
IS-95 CDMA, 137–139
ISI (intersymbol interference), 101–104, 115–116
ISM (industrial-scientific-medical) band, 130
Isolation
LNAs, 260
outphasing, 809
reverse, 72
J
Jitter in divider design, 711
L
L-section topologies, 67–68
Laplace transform
charge pumps, 615–617
PLL transient response, 621
Large-signal impedance matching, 780–782
Latches
current-steering circuits, 686–689
divide-by-2 circuits, 878–879
Latchup in mixers, 406–407
Lateral-field capacitors, 529
Lateral substrate currents, 452
Layout parasitics in divide-by-2 circuit, 879
LC oscillators
cross-coupled, 511–517
LO swings, 366
open-loop Q, 545–546
phase noise, 501
Leakage
direct-conversion receivers, 179–184
direct-conversion transmitters, 232–234
heterodyne transmitters, 244
LNA systems, 261
polar modulation, 802
Least mean square (LMS) algorithm, 234
Leeson’s Equation, 547
Lenz’s law, 452
L’Hopital’s rule, 769
Limit cycles in fractional-N synthesizers, 728
Limiting stage in polar modulation, 794–795
Line-to-line inductor spacing, 463
Linear amplification with nonlinear components (LINC), 802–803
Linear drain capacitance, 780
Linear model of oscillators, 548–549
Linear power amplifiers, 110
Linear systems, 9
LNAs, 260–261
nonlinearity. See Nonlinearity
power amplifiers, 756–758, 782–783
Cartesian feedback, 786–787
Class A, 761–762
envelope detector, 794
envelope feedback, 788–790
feedforward, 783–786
predistortion, 787–788
LMS (least mean square) algorithm, 234
LNAs. See Low-noise amplifiers (LNAs)
LO. See Local oscillator (LO)
Load capacitance
divide-by-2 circuits, 696
Load design for class E power amplifiers, 772
Load inductors in divide-by-2 circuits, 696
Load-pull tests, 781–782
Load switching in LNAs, 311
Local envelope feedback, 793
Cartesian feedback, 787
coupling in power amplifiers, 760
direct-conversion receivers, 179–184
direct-conversion transmitters, 237–240
drive capability, 499
frequency synthesizers, 656–657, 660, 840
heterodyne receivers, 160–164, 170–172, 176–177
heterodyne transmitters, 244–246
ideal waveforms, 349–350
interface, 575–577
leakage, 179–184, 341–342, 357
LO-IF feedthrough, 340
mixers
buffers, 413
with high IP2, 398
with low flicker noise, 407–408
single-balanced and double-balanced, 348–350
upconversion, 413–416
off-chip inductors, 430–431
offset PLLs, 673
on-off keying transceivers, 248–249
outphasing mismatches, 805
output waveforms, 501
phase noise, 540–542
polar modulation, 798
ports
pulling, 846
swings, 366
VCO phases, 746
Lock range in injection-locked dividers, 707–709
Lock time in integer-N synthesizers, 658–659, 885–886
Logic styles in divider design
current-steering circuits, 683–689
divide-by-2 circuits, 689–697
true single-phase clocking, 697–699
Loops
integer-N synthesizers, 663, 881–886
oscillator gain, 504–507
phase-locked. See Phase-locked loops (PLLs)
VCO phase noise, 645–646
Losses
inductors, 444–455
matching networks, 69–71
microstrips, 480–482
Lossy circuits, noise in, 42, 56–58
Lossy oscillatory systems, Q in, 459
Lossy tanks in one-port oscillators, 509–510
Low-frequency beat in active mixers, 402–403
Low-frequency components in phase noise, 569
Low-IF receivers, 214–217
double-quadrature downconversion, 224–226
polyphase filters, 217–224
Low-noise amplifiers (LNAs), 255
common-gate stage. See Common-gate (CG) stage in LNAs
common-source stage
with inductive degeneration, 284–296
with inductive load, 266–269
with resistive feedback, 269–272
design, 849–852
gain switching, 305–312
heterodyne receivers, 166, 169, 174–175
high-IP2. See High-IP2 LNAs
input matching, 263–266
input return loss, 258–259
linearity, 260–261
noise-cancelling, 300–303
noise computations, 49–51
noise figure, 255–257
nonlinearity calculations, 325
degenerated common-source stage, 325–329
degenerated differential pairs, 332–333
differential and quasi-differential pairs, 331–332
undegenerated common-source stage, 329–330
power dissipation, 263
reactance-cancelling, 303–305
stability, 259–260
Low-noise VCOs, 573–575
Low-pass filters, 101
direct-conversion receivers, 179
fractional-N synthesizers, 716
image-reject receivers, 203, 206
noise, 40
polar modulation, 824–826
power amplifier linearization, 790
Low-pass signals in direct-conversion receivers, 189–190
Low-side injection
heterodyne receivers, 164–166
image-reject receivers, 211–212
Lumped capacitance
interwinding, 462
substrate, 453
transformers, 472
MOS capacitors, 491
MOS varactors, 487–489
MOSFETs, 44
Lumped resistance of varactors, 487–488
M
along axis of symmetry, 465
and coupling capacitance, 475
eddy currents, 466
plots, 433–434
to substrate, 452–455, 457–459
Make-before-break operations, 139
MASH architecture, 732
Matching networks, 62–63. See also Mismatches
losses, 69–71
passive impedance transformation, 65–69, 752–753
power amplifiers, 752–753, 814
high currents, 755
large-signal, 780–782
power combining, 821
Mathematical model for VCOs, 577–581
MATLAB for power amplifiers, 757
Memoryless systems, 12
Metal losses in inductor modeling, 455
Metal-plate capacitors, 493–495
Metal resistance in inductor Q, 444–448
Metastability in divider design, 711
Microstrips, 479–482
Microwave theory, 71
Miller dividers, 699–702
with inductive load, 702–705
moduli with, 705–707
Miller multiplication, 291–292
Mirror symmetry in inductors, 464
active mixers with high IP2, 400
antenna/LNA interface, 258–259
fractional-N synthesizers, 733–738
I/Q
frequency planning, 848
transmitters, 229–232, 241, 244, 839–840
image-reject receivers, 209
integer-N synthesizers, 883
LNAs, 263–266
multiphase frequency division, 746–747
outphasing, 805
passive upconversion mixers, 414
PFD/CP, 627–630
PLL higher-order loops, 625
polar modulation, 793–794
quadrature oscillators, 588–590
receivers, 837–838
up and down current, 632–633, 637, 733–734
active. See Active mixers
considerations, 337–338
design, 851–856
direct-conversion receivers, 187–189
direct-conversion transmitters, 234–235, 240–243
double-balanced. See Double-balanced mixers
downconversion. See Downconversion and downconversion mixers
as envelope detector, 789–790
gain. See Conversion gain
harmonic distortion, 15–16
heterodyne receivers, 160–164, 168–170
high-IP2 LNAs, 324
injection-locked dividers, 708
and LNA noise, 257
noise and linearity, 338–339
noise figures, 343–348
oscillators. See Local oscillator (LO)
passive. See Passive mixers
performance parameters, 338–343
phase noise, 566
PLLs, 672–673
polar modulation, 826
port-to-port feedthrough, 339–343
single-balanced. See Single-balanced mixers
upconversion. See Upconversion and upconversion mixers
Mixing spurs, 338
direct-conversion receivers, 179, 199
heterodyne receivers, 170–171
heterodyne transmitters, 245–248
Mobile RF communications, 119
antenna diversity, 122
cellular systems, 119–120
co-channel interference, 120
delay spread, 122–123
hand-offs, 120–121
interleaving, 123
path loss and multipath fading, 121–122
Mobile stations, 131
Mobile telephone switching offices (MTSOs), 120–121
Modeling
inductors, 455–460
transformers, 475–476
Modems, 92
Modulation, 92–93
AM. See Amplitude modulation (AM)
analog, 93–99
digital. See Digital modulation
direct-conversion receivers, 184
FM, 95–96
frequency synthesizer spurs, 843–844
heterodyne receivers, 173
narrowband approximation, 96–98
image-reject receivers, 200
intermodulation, 21–29
phase, 95–99
PLL-based, 667–673
polar. See Polar modulation power amplifiers
wireless standards, 130
Modulation index, 93
Modulus
dual-modulus, 677–682, 880–881
multi-modulus, 732
prescaler, 682–683
fractional-N synthesizers, 718–721
frequency multiplication, 610–611
MOS capacitors, 491–493
MOS switches, 600
MOS transistors, 43–46
MOS varactors, 485–490, 519–520
MTSOs (mobile telephone switching offices), 120–121
Multi-carrier spectrum in OFDM, 117
Multi-modulus dividers, 732
Multipath fading, 121–123
Multipath propagation, 115–116
Multiphase frequency division, 745–748
Multiple access techniques
CDMA, 126–130
FDMA, 125
TDMA, 125–126
time and frequency division duplexing, 123–124
Multiplexers (MUX)
fractional dividers, 742
frequency planning, 846–847
multiphase frequency division, 745–746
VCOs, 877
Mutual injection pulling between oscillators, 589
N
NAND gates
current-steering circuits, 683–684
divide-by-2 circuits, 676
divide-by-2/3 circuits, 680
phase/frequency detectors, 614
single-phase clocking, 698
Narrowband FM approximation, 96–98
Narrowband noise, 551
Natural frequency
divide-by-2 circuits, 693
oscillator mismatches, 588
PLLs, 608
Near/far effect in CDMA, 129
Negative feedback systems
noise-cancelling LNAs, 303
oscillators, 502–503
power amplifier linearization, 783
VCO phase in PLLs, 601
Negative-Gm oscillators, 516
Negative resistance
cross-coupled oscillators, 516
LNA systems, 268
one-port oscillators, 509–510
Nested feedforward architecture, 785
90° phase shift
image-reject receivers, 200–205
low-IF receivers, 215–216
NMOS devices
transconductance, 282
transit frequency, 3
VCO cross-coupled pairs, 530
Noise and noise figure (NF), 35–36
AGC, 859
bipolar transistors, 46
cascaded stages, 52–56
CDMA, 127
direct-conversion receivers, 190–191, 346
direct-conversion transmitters, 238
flicker. See Flicker noise
fractional-N synthesizers. See Fractional-N synthesizers (FNSs)
frequency planning, 846
frequency synthesizers, 840–843
FSK signals, 105–106
IEEE802.11, 149
input-referred, 46–48
LNAs. See Low-noise amplifiers (LNAs)
lossy circuits, 56–58
mixers
with current-source helpers, 393–394
in design, 853–854
linearity, 387–392
noise figures, 343–348
overview, 338–339
qualitative analysis, 377–381
quantitative analysis, 381–387
RZ, 357–359
sampling, 359–364
upconversion vs. downconversion, 409
modulus randomization, 718–721
MOS transistors, 43–46
offset PLLs, 670–671
oscillators, 501, 503, 546–548
overview, 48–52
phase. See Phase noise
polar modulation, 802
PSK signals, 105
quadrature oscillators, 591–592
quantization. See Quantization noise
as random process, 36–37
direct-conversion, 191–194
heterodyne, 169
low-IF, 215
representation in circuits, 46–58
resistors, 40–43
and sensitivity, 59–60
spectrum, 37–39
transfer function, 39–40
Noise-cancelling LNAs, 300–303
Noise floor, 59
Non-delaying integrators, 728
Non-return-to-zero (NRZ) mixers, 352
Nonlinear power amplifiers, 93
AM/PM conversion, 33–35
cascaded stages, 29–33
cross modulation, 20–21
drain capacitance in impedance matching, 780
gain compression, 16–20
harmonic distortion, 14–16
intermodulation, 21–29
degenerated common-source stage, 325–329
degenerated differential pairs, 332–333
differential and quasi-differential pairs, 331–332
undegenerated common-source stage, 329–330
noise relationship to, 387–388
overview, 12–14
PFD/CP, 735–736
receivers, 834–835
Volterra series currents, 81–85
Nonmonotonic error, 736
NOR gates
current-steering circuits, 683–684, 689
dual-modulus dividers, 677–679
synthesizer design, 883
Norton noise equivalent, 40, 548–549
NRZ (non-return-to-zero) mixers, 352
Number of turns factor
metal resistance inductors, 445–446
spiral inductors, 432–434, 436–437, 441–442
O
Octagonal inductors, 435
OFDM. See Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
OFDM channelization in IEEE802.11, 147–148
Off-chip devices
image-reject filters, 166
inductors, 429–431
Offset frequency
mixers, 853–855
Offset PLLs, 670–673
Offset QPSK (OQPSK), 110
Offsets
active mixers with high IP2, 398–400
AGC, 859
direct-conversion receivers, 181–187
passive upconversion mixers, 414–415
port-to-port feedthrough, 340–341
On-chip devices
ac coupling, 183
high-pass filters, 214
inductors, 179, 320–322, 694, 770
low-pass filters, 179
passive. See Passive devices
transformers, 299–300, 821, 826
transmission lines, 829
On-off keying (OOK), 100, 248–249
1–1 cascades, 731
1-dB compression point, 17–18
1/f noise, 44–46
One-port view of oscillators, 508–511, 584
One-sided spectra, 38
OOK (on-off keying), 100, 248–249
Open-loop control
IS-95 CDMA, 138
polar modulation, 793
Open-loop model of cross-coupled oscillators, 545, 547–548
Open-loop modulation, 667
Opposite signs in sidebands, 97–98
OQPSK (offset QPSK), 110
OR gates
current-steering circuits, 684, 689
divide-by-2/3 circuits, 679
divide-by-15/16 circuits, 681
dual-modulus divider, 880
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
average power, 235
for delay spread, 147–148
flicker noise, 854
I/Q mismatch, 198
overview, 115–118
in transceiver design, 835, 837–838, 854
Orthogonal messages, 126
Orthogonal phasors, 585
Oscillators, 497
cross-coupled. See Cross-coupled oscillators
design procedure, 571–575
drive capability, 498–499
feedback view, 502–508
frequency range, 497–498
integer-N synthesizer design, 881
linear model, 548–549
LO. See Local oscillator (LO)
output voltage swing, 498
performance parameters, 497–501
phase/frequency detectors, 613
phase noise. See Phase noise
pulling in direct-conversion transmitters, 237–238
quadrature. See Quadrature oscillators
three-point, 517–518
VCOs. See Voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs)
Out-of-band blocking
Bluetooth, 146
GSM, 133
transceivers, 157–158
wideband CDMA, 140
Out-of-band noise, 732–733
Out-of-channel IP3, 835
Outphasing power amplifiers
basics, 802–804
design, 826–829
issues, 805–810
Output capacitance
divide-by-2 circuits, 696
mixers, 376
power amplifiers, 819
Output impedance
common-gate LNAs, 298
current sources, 634–635
large signals, 780–781
matching networks, 69
PLLs, 634
power amplifiers, 809
Output matching networks, 69, 814
Output power control, 820
Output voltage swing, 9
flicker noise, 566
oscillators, 498
power amplifiers, 756, 762, 778, 792, 816, 861–863
Output waveforms for RF oscillators, 501
Overdrive voltage, 413
Overlap for blind zones, 536
Overlapping spectra
CDMA, 127–128
IEEE802.11, 150
P
Packages
coupling between pins, 430
power amplifier parasitics, 755
Pad capacitance, 281, 286–287, 291–293
PAE (power-added efficiency), 756
Parallel inductors, 435
Parallel-plate capacitors, 493–495, 529
Parallel resistance
ideal capacitors, 63
inductor modeling, 455–456
Parameters, scattering, 71–75
Parasitics
active mixers, 396–397
class E power amplifiers, 772
cross-coupled oscillators, 514
divide-by-2 circuits, 694, 879
parallel-plate capacitors, 494
PARs (peak-to-average ratio) in OFDM, 117–118
Partial channel selection, 168
PAs. See Power amplifiers (PAs)
Passband signals, 91–92
Passive devices, 429
considerations, 429–431
constant capacitors, 490–495
inductors. See Inductance and inductors
modeling issues, 431
transformers. See Transformers
transmission lines. See Transmission lines (T-lines)
varactors, 483–490
Passive filters, 158
Passive impedance transformation, 62–63
matching networks, 65–71
quality factor, 63
series-to-parallel conversions, 63–65
carrier feedthrough, 413–416
current-driven, 366–368
gain, 350–357
input impedance, 364–367
LO self-mixing, 357
Miller dividers, 704–705
noise, 357–364
upconversion, 409–413
Path loss, 121–122
Patterned ground shields, 466
PCS1900, 132
PDs (phase detectors) in phase-locked loops, 597–600
Peak detection, 790
Peak-to-average ratio (PARs) in OFDM, 117–118
Peak-to-peak voltage swing, 8–9
Peak value, 18
Peaking amplifiers, 811
Performance
high-speed dividers, 690
oscillators, 497–501
power amplifier linearization, 787
trends, 2
Periodic impulse response, 559
Periodic waveforms, low-pass filters with, 101
Periods in phase noise, 536
Perpendicular resultants in FM signals, 97
PFDs. See Phase/frequency detectors (PFDs)
Phase detectors (PDs) in PLLs, 597–600
Phase-domain models for PLLs, 607
Phase errors
GSM, 135
PLLs, 600–601, 603–606, 608, 611, 615
QPSK, 108
Phase feedback in polar modulation, 798–799
Phase/frequency detectors (PFDs)
charge pump capacitive cascades, 615–618
fractional-N synthesizers, 718, 734–737
nonidealities, 627
channel-length modulation, 633–634
charge injection and clock feedthrough, 630–632
circuit techniques, 634–638
up and down current mismatches, 632–633
up and down skew and width mismatch, 627–630
voltage compliance, 630
reset pulses, 737
Phase-locked loops (PLLs), 597
charge-pump, 615–620
continuous-time approximation, 622–623
design, 646–647
frequency multiplying CPPLLs, 623–625
higher-order loops, 625–627
in-loop modulation, 667–669
loop bandwidth, 645–646
offset, 670–673
PFD/CP nonidealities. See Phase/frequency detectors (PFDs)
phase detectors, 597–600
phase noise, 638–644
polar modulation, 798, 800, 802, 825
transient response, 620–622
type-I. See Type-I PLLs
type-II. See Type-II PLLs
Phase-locked phase noise profiles, 841
Phase margin of PLLs, 625, 647–651
Phase mismatches
direct-conversion receivers, 196
direct-conversion transmitters, 241
multiphase frequency division, 746–747
Phase modulation (PM)
AM/PM conversion, 33–35
overview, 95–99
power amplifiers, 757
Phase modulation index, 95
divider design, 709–712
frequency planning, 846
frequency synthesizers, 720–723, 732–733, 840–843
offset PLLs, 672
additive noise conversions to, 550–552, 554
basic concepts, 536–539
bias current source, 565–570
computation, 554–555
current impulse, 557–558
effects, 539–543
flicker, 563–564
higher harmonics, 564–565
injected, 562–563
linear model, 548–549
noise shaping, 546–548
Q, 544–546
tail capacitance, 555–557
time-variant systems, 559–561
time-varying resistance, 553–554
reference, 643–644
type-II PLLs, 638–644
VCOs, 570–572, 638–643, 871–875
Phase shift
Miller dividers, 702
offset PLLs, 673
oscillators, 504–505, 507, 512, 591
polar modulation, 794
power amplifier linearization, 787
Phase shift keying (PSK)
quadrature PSK, 107–112
signal constellation, 105–106
spectrum, 103
waveforms, 100
Phases
charge pumps, 616
phase/frequency detectors, 612
polar modulation, 791, 802, 826
QPSK, 109–110
Phasor diagrams, 550
anti-phase coupling, 585–586
in-phase coupling, 585
quadrature oscillators, 587
Piecewise-linear waveforms, 383
Planar transformers, 470, 473–474
PLL-based modulation
in-loop modulation, 667–669
offset PLLs, 670–673
PLLs. See Phase-locked loops (PLLs)
PM (phase modulation)
AM/PM conversion, 33–35
overview, 95–99
power amplifiers, 757
PMOS devices
channel-length modulation, 633
charge pumps, 629
cross-coupled pairs, 530–531
dividers, 878
PLLs, 636
surface states, 44
PN-junction varactors, 484–486
Polar modulation power amplifiers, 790
basic idea, 790–793
design, 824–826
improved, 796–802
issues, 793–796
Polyphase filters, 217–224
Port-to-port feedthrough, 339–343
Ports, mixer, 337–338
Positive feedback in oscillators, 504
Positive-feedback power amplifiers, 819–821
Power-added efficiency (PAE), 756
Power amplifiers (PAs), 93, 755–756
cascode output stages, 751, 776–779
class AB, 767
class B, 764–767
class C, 768–770
class E, 772–775
class F, 775–776
considerations, 751–754
cascode examples, 815–819
common-mode stability, 866–867
outphasing, 826–829
polar modulation, 824–826
positive-feedback, 819–821
power combining, 821–824
predrivers, 864–865
Doherty, 811–813
efficiency, 755–756
high currents, 754–755
large-signal impedance matching, 780–782
linearity. See Linearity and linearization
OFDM, 117
outphasing
basic idea, 802–804
design, 826–829
issues, 805–810
polar modulation. See Polar modulation power amplifiers
single-ended and differential, 758–760
Power combining in power amplifiers, 821–824
Power consumption trends, 2
Power control
direct-conversion transmitters, 232–233
DS-CDMA, 128–129
IS-95 CDMA, 138
polar modulation, 801
power amplifiers, 820
Power conversion gain in mixers, 339
Power dissipation
LNAs, 263
oscillators, 501
VCOs, 571
Power efficiency, 93
Power gain, 7–9
Power spectral density (PSD) noise, 37, 44–45
Predistortion, 787–788
Prescaler modulus, 674–675, 682–683
Primary inductances in power amplifiers, 765–767
Primary turns in transformers, 473–474
Program counters in pulse swallow dividers, 674–675
Programmable AGC gain, 859
Propagation
mismatches, 625
multipath, 115–116
PSD (power spectral density) noise, 37, 44–45
Pseudo-random noise, 127
PSK (phase shift keying)
quadrature PSK, 107–112
signal constellation, 105–106
spectrum, 103
waveforms, 100
Pulse-swallow counters, 880, 881
Pulse-swallow dividers, 673–677
Pulsewidth modulation, 386
Q
Q. See Quality factor (Q)
QPSK (quadrature PSK) modulation, 107–112
EDGE, 136
phase noise, 542–543
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), 114–115
Quadrature downconversion
heterodyne receivers, 174–175
low-IF receivers, 219–221
Weaver architecture, 213
Quadrature LO phases, 746
Quadrature mismatches, 195
Quadrature oscillators, 581
basic concepts, 581–584
coupled oscillators, 584–589
feedback model, 582–584
improved, 589–592
one-port model, 584
simulation, 592–593
Quadrature phase separation, 216
Quadrature PSK (QPSK) modulation, 107–112
EDGE, 136
phase noise, 542–543
Quadrature upconverters, 227
GMSK, 113
heterodyne transmitters, 247–248
I/Q mismatch, 230–231
passive mixers in, 411
polar modulation, 797–798
Qualitative analysis of mixer noise, 377–381
definitions, 459–460
and frequency, 454
inductors
differential, 463
ground shields, 466–467
metal resistance, 444–447
passive impedance transformation, 63
phase noise, 544–546
polar modulation, 796
quadrature oscillators, 588
varactors, 484, 487, 489, 522–524
VCOs, 534–535
Quantitative analysis of mixer noise, 381–387
Quantization noise, 719–721
basic noise shaping, 722–728
charge pump mismatch, 736–737
DAC feedforward for, 738–742
fractional dividers, 742–743
higher-order noise shaping, 728–732
multiphase frequency division, 745–748
out-of-band, 732–733
reference doubling, 743–745
spectrum, 748–749
Quasi-differential pairs
active mixers with high IP2, 401–402
active upconversion mixers, 416–417
LNAs, 331–332
Quasi-static approximation, 757
R
Radiation resistance, 42, 49–50
Rail-to-rail operation
LO, 366, 577, 852–853, 867–868
PLLs, 636
VCOs, 877–878
Raised-cosine spectrum, 104
Rake receivers, 138
Random bit streams in low-pass filters, 101
Random mismatches
fractional-N synthesizers, 737
up and down current, 637
Random process, noise as, 36–37
Randomization, modulus, 718–721
Ratioed logic, 878
Rayleigh distribution, 122
RC-CR networks
image-reject receivers, 203, 209–210
low-IF receivers, 215–217
Reactance-cancelling LNAs, 303–305
Receive bands, 157
Receiver/demodulators, 92
Receivers (RX), 848
AGC design, 856–861
AGC range, 836–837
Bluetooth characteristics, 145–147
direct-conversion. See Direct-conversion receivers
front ends, 156
heterodyne. See Heterodyne receivers
image-reject. See Image-reject receivers (IRRs)
input level range, 131
LNA design, 849–852
LNA leakage, 261
low-IF, 214–217
double-quadrature downconversion, 224–226
polyphase filters, 217–224
mixer design, 851–856
nonlinearity, 834–835
sensitivity, 131
simple view, 4–5
system-level considerations, 834–838
tolerance to blockers, 131
wideband CDMA requirements, 140–143
Receiving antenna thermal noise, 42
Reciprocal mixing
frequency synthesizers, 657–658, 840
phase noise, 540
Reconstructed error in quantization noise, 738–739
Reference cycles in fractional-N synthesizers, 716–718
Reference doubling in quantization noise, 743–745
Reference frequency in integer-N synthesizers, 656, 660, 664
Reference phase noise in PLLs, 643–644
Reference sidebands in integer-N synthesizers, 663
Reflected waves, 71–73
Regeneration mode current-steering circuits, 686–688
Regulated cascodes, 634–635
Regulator noise in oscillators, 501
Replicas, IS-95 CDMA, 138
Representation of noise, 46–58
Reset pulses in phase/frequency detectors, 613
Resettable D flipflops, 613
Resistance and resistors
cross-coupled oscillators, 516
ideal capacitors, 63
inductor modeling, 455–456
inductor Q, 444–448
microstrips, 482
one-port oscillators, 509–511
power amplifier loads, 752–753
skin effect, 448–450
T-lines, 477
time-varying, 553–554
varactors, 487–489
Resistance-free coupling with inductors, 470
Resistive-feedback LNAs, 269–272, 849–851
Resistive termination for LNAs, 264
Resolution of ADCs, 837, 858–859
Resonance frequency
inductor equations, 438
VCOs, 519
Response decays in PLLs, 621
Restoration force in phase noise, 544
Retiming flipflops in integer-N synthesizers, 667
Return paths in T-lines, 478
Return-to-zero (RZ) mixers
noise, 357–359
passive downconversion, 350
passive upconversion, 410
Reverse channels, 119
RF chokes (RFC), 752
RF design hexagon, 3
RF-LO feedthrough, 341–343
Ring oscillators
divide-by-2 circuits as, 690–691
injection-locked, 709
waveforms, 507
Ripple
fractional-N synthesizers, 738
integer-N synthesizers, 665, 883, 885–886
power amplifiers, 759
Roaming in cellular systems, 120–121
Roll-off factor, 104
RZ (return-to-zero) mixers
noise, 357–359
passive downconversion, 350
passive upconversion, 410
S
S (scattering) parameters, 71–75
S/P (serial-to-parallel) converters, 107
Sampling filters in fractional-N synthesizers, 665, 738
Sampling mixers, 352–354
noise, 359–364
passive upconversion, 409–410
Scattering (S) parameters, 71–75
Second intercept points (IP2), 188
Second-order 1-bit Σ Δ modulators, 729
Second-order nonlinearity, 29
Second-order parallel tanks, Q in, 460
Secondary images in image-reject receivers, 212
Secondary inductances in power amplifiers, 765–767
Secondary turns in transformers, 473–474
asymmetric signals, 173–175
direct-conversion receivers, 179, 190
Self-oscillation in divide-by-2 circuits, 691
Self-resonance frequency of inductor capacitance, 442
Sense mode for current-steering circuits, 686–687
Sensitivity
overview, 59–60
VCOs, 518
wireless standards, 131
Sequence-asymmetric polyphase filters, 221
Serial-to-parallel (S/P) converters, 107
Series inductance in LNA common-source stage, 291
Series inductors, 435
Series peaking in divide-by-2 circuits, 694–696
Series resistance
ideal capacitors, 63
inductor modeling, 455–456
Series-to-parallel conversions, 63–65
Servo amplifiers in PLLs, 636
Settling behavior in integer-N synthesizers, 661–664
7-cell reuse pattern, 120
SFDR (spurious-free dynamic range), 60–62
Shannon’s theorem, 155
Shift-by-90° operation in image-reject receivers, 200–205
Shot noise, 46
Shunt peaking in divide-by-2 circuits, 694–695
Shunt tail noise in low-noise VCOs, 573
Sidebands
direct-conversion transmitters, 240–243
fractional-N synthesizers, 716
frequency-multiplying PLLs, 624
heterodyne transmitters, 245
integer-N synthesizers, 657, 663
opposite signs in, 97–98
VCO, 628
Σ Δ modulators
fractional-N synthesizers, 726–730, 733, 736–738
VCO phases, 748
Signal cancellation loops, 783
Signal constellations, 105–112
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). See Noise and noise figure (NF)
Signs in sidebands, 97–98
Simulators
integer-N synthesizers, 884–886
power amplifiers, 757
varactors, 487
Sinc pulses, 103–104
Single-balanced mixers, 348–350
input impedance, 365
passive, 351
sampling, 355–356
voltage conversion gain, 377
Single-ended power amplifiers, 758–760
Single-ended stage in differential LNAs, 315–317
Single-ended to differential LNA conversion, 320
Single-sideband (SSB) mixing
direct-conversion transmitters, 240–243
heterodyne transmitters, 247–248
Miller dividers, 706
noise figure, 344
Single-sideband (SSB) transmitters in image-reject receivers, 206
16QAM constellation
description, 114
phase noise, 543
spectral regrowth, 118
64QAM constellation, 115
Skin effect in inductors, 448–450, 457
Sliding-IF receivers, 174–178
Slope of I/O characteristic, 17
SNR (signal-to-noise ratio). See Noise and noise figure (NF)
Soft hand-offs in IS-95 CDMA, 139
Software-defined radios, 199
Sonnet simulator, 439
Source-bulk capacitance in LNA common-source stage, 293
Source impedance in noise figure, 50
Source switching in charge pumps, 631
Space diversity in cellular systems, 122
Spectra
amplitude modulation, 94
noise, 37–39
Spectral masks, 130–131
Spectral regrowth, 118–119
Spiral inductors
equations, 436–439
geometries, 435
high-IP2 LNAs, 323–324
number of turns factor, 432–434, 436–437, 441–442
overview, 431–434
stacking, 467
transformers, 471
VCOs, 520–521
Split reset pulses, 737
Spread spectrum (SS) communications, 127
Spreading sequence code, 127
Spurious-free dynamic range (SFDR), 60–62
Spurs, 338
direct-conversion receivers, 179, 199
fractional, 716
frequency synthesizers, 843–844
heterodyne receivers, 170–171
heterodyne transmitters, 245–248
integer-N synthesizers, 664–667
Square-wave LOs, 170
SS (spread spectrum) communications, 127
SSB (single-sideband) mixing
direct-conversion transmitters, 240–243
heterodyne transmitters, 247–248
Miller dividers, 706
noise figure, 344
SSB (Single-sideband) transmitters in image-reject receivers, 206
Stability
LNAs, 259–260
power amplifiers, 866–867
Stacked inductors, 467–470
Stacked metal layers in microstrips, 482
Stacked spirals
high-IP2 LNAs, 323–324
transformers, 473–474
Stacked transformers
description, 474–475
power amplifiers, 821
Standards, wireless, 130–132
Bluetooth, 143–147
GSM, 132–137
IEEE802.11a/b/g, 147–151
IS-95 CDMA, 137–139
wideband CDMA, 139–143
State diagrams for phase/frequency detectors, 612
Static phase errors in PLLs, 603, 605
Static systems, 12
Step symmetry of inductors, 464
Stern stability factor, 259
Striplines, 483
Subcarriers in OFDM, 117
Substrate
capacitive coupling to, 439–440, 450–452, 457–458
magnetic coupling to, 452–455, 457–459
Superdyne system, 164
Supply sensitivity of oscillators, 501
Surface states, 44
Swallow counters, 674–676, 682, 880, 881
Switch on-resistance of VCOs, 535
Switch parasitics in band switching LNAs, 313
Switch transistors
class E power amplifiers, 772–773
phase noise, 538
VCOs, 534
Switchable stages in polar modulation, 824
Switched capacitors for VCOs, 533, 872
Switching pair current in active mixers, 405, 407
Switching power amplifiers, 772–773
Symbols in QPSK, 107
Symmetric inductors, 435, 460–466, 520–521
Symmetrically-modulated signals, 172
Synchronous AM detectors, 790
Synchronous operation of dual-modulus dividers, 680
Synthesizers
fractional-N. See Fractional-N synthesizers (FNSs)
integer-N. See Integer-N synthesizers
PLLs, 611
System-level design considerations, 833
frequency planning, 844–848
frequency synthesizers, 840–844
receivers, 834–838
transmitters, 838–840
System specifications for oscillators, 497
T
T-lines (transmission lines), 476–478
coplanar, 482–483
microstrips, 479–482
striplines, 483
Tail capacitance
phase noise, 555–557
Tail current
cross-coupled oscillators, 513–515
passive upconversion mixers, 412
phase noise, 556
time-varying resistance, 554
VCOs, 525–526, 531–532, 874–875
Tail noise
cross-coupled oscillators, 513, 565–566
Tails coupling in quadrature oscillators, 589
Tapered stages in power amplifiers, 754
TDD (time division duplexing), 123–124
TDMA (time-division multiple access), 125–126
Temperature. See Thermal noise
Terminals in mobile RF communications, 119
Terminating resistors in LNAs, 264
Thermal noise, 36
direct-conversion receivers, 191
MOS transistors, 43–46
resistors, 40–43
Thevenin equivalent of divide-by-2 circuits, 695
Thevenin model of resistor thermal noise, 40, 57
Third intercept points (IP3), 25–27
Third-order characteristic, 13
Third-order intermodulation, 22, 31
Three-point oscillators, 517–518
Time constants in PLL transient response, 621
Time-contracted simulation of integer-N synthesizer loops, 884
Time diversity
cellular systems, 122
IS-95 CDMA, 138
Time division duplexing (TDD), 123–124
Time-division multiple access (TDMA), 125–126
overview, 9–12
passive downconversion mixers, 366
phase noise, 559–561
Time-varying resistance in phase noise, 553–554
Time-varying voltage division in outphasing, 808
Timing errors in class E power amplifiers, 773
Tones
fractional-N synthesizers, 727–728
power amplifiers, 756–757
Top-biased VCOs, 525–526
Top current in phase noise, 568–569
Total frequency, 95
Total noise power in phase noise, 541
Total phase
modulation, 95
VCOs, 579
Total stored energy in inductor capacitance, 441
Track-mode noise, 359–361
Tradeoffs in design, 3
channel selection and band selection, 157–159
considerations, 155–157
design example, 833
integer-N synthesizers, 869–886
receivers, 848–861
system-level design. See System-level design considerations
transmitters, 861–869
on-off keying, 248–249
receivers. See Receivers (RX)
transmitters. See Transmitters (TX)
TX-RX feedthrough, 159–160
Transconductance
LNAs
common-gate stage, 279–280, 282
common-source stage, 288–291
differential, 319
gain switching, 306
oscillators, 511
quadrature oscillators, 591
time-varying resistance, 554
VCOs, 875
Transfer functions
fractional-N synthesizers, 722, 724, 728, 732–733
integer-N synthesizers, 661–662, 665–666, 669, 693–696, 709
integrators, 506
noise, 39–41, 544, 569, 638–641, 643
oscillators, 544, 547–548, 562
PLLs, 606–608, 615, 617–620, 622–623, 649
RC-CR networks, 203
Transformation, passive impedance, 62–63
matching networks, 65–71
quality factor, 63
series-to-parallel conversions, 63–65
Transformers, 470
coupling capacitance, 474–475
impedance transforms, 69
modeling, 475–476
outphasing, 806–807
power amplifiers, 753, 767, 821–824
structures, 470–475
Transient response in type-II PLLs, 620–622
Transistors
class E power amplifiers, 772–773
cross-coupled oscillators, 514
phase noise, 538
thermal noise, 43–46
VCOs, 534
Transmission lines (T-lines), 476–478
coplanar, 482–483
microstrips, 479–482
striplines, 483
Transmission masks in IEEE802.11, 147–148
Transmit bands, 158–159
Transmit spectrum masks, 144–145
Transmitted noise in offset PLLs, 670–671
Transmitter antenna thermal noise, 42
Transmitters (TX), 861
Bluetooth characteristics, 143–145
cell phones, 91
considerations, 226–227
direct-conversion. See Direct-conversion transmitters
GSM specifications, 135–136
harmonic distortion, 16
heterodyne, 244–248
LNA leakage, 261
outphasing, 804
power amplifiers, 861–867
in simple view, 4–5
system-level considerations, 838–840
upconverters, 867–869
wideband CDMA, 139–140
wireless standards, 130–131
wireless systems, 156
Trends, 2–3
True single-phase clocking (TSPC), 697–699
Tuning VCOs, 521–522
amplitude variation with frequency tuning, 532
continuous, 524–532
discrete, 532–536
range limitations, 521–522
Turn-to-turn capacitances in inductors, 441–442
Two-level modulation schemes, 92
Two-pole oscillators, 504–505
Two-sided spectra, 38
Two-tone tests
active downconversion mixers, 392
intermodulation, 22, 24–25, 28
power amplifiers, 756–757
sensitivity, 61–62
TX-RX feedthrough, 159–160
drawbacks, 611
frequency multiplication, 609–611
loop dynamics, 606–609
simple circuit, 601–606
VCO phase alignment, 600–601
Type-II PLLs, 611–612
charge pumps, 614–620
continuous-time approximation limitations, 622–623
design procedure, 646–647
frequency-multiplying CPPLLs, 623–625
higher-order loops, 625–627
loop bandwidth, 645–646
PFD/CP nonidealities. See Phase/frequency detectors (PFDs)
phase/frequency detectors, 612–614
phase margin, 647–651
phase noise, 638–644
transient response, 620–622
U
Undegenerated common-source stages, LNA nonlinearity calculations for, 329–330
Uniformly-distributed model of inductor capacitance, 441–442
Unilateral coupling in quadrature oscillators, 581
Units, 7–9
Unity-gain voltage buffers, 602, 607
Up currents and pulses
charge pumps, 614–615, 630–633, 645–647
fractional-N synthesizers, 733–734
integer-N synthesizers, 883
PLL higher-order loops, 625, 627
quantization noise, 739
Up skew in PFD/CP, 627–630
Upconversion and upconversion mixers, 339, 408
active, 416–424
design, 867–869
heterodyne transmitters, 244–248
I/Q mismatch, 229–232
linearity, 234–235
offset PLLs, 671
output spectrum, 844
passive, 409–416
performance requirements, 408–409
polar modulation, 797–798
power amplifiers, 758
scaling up, 230–231
Uplinks, 119
V
V/I (voltage-to-current) conversion
downconversion, 368–369
upconversion, 867–868
Varactors
overview, 483–490
Q, 522–524
Variable coding rates in IS-95 CDMA, 139
Variable-delay stages in integer-N synthesizers, 665–667
Variable-envelope signals in QPSK, 110
Variable-gain amplifiers (VGAs), 860
Variance, time. See Time-variant systems
VCOs. See Voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs)
Vector modulators, 227
VGAs (variable-gain amplifiers), 860
Vn1 and Vn2 spectrum in mixers, 360–364
Voice signals, 91
Voltage compliance issues in PFD/CP, 630
Voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs), 485
Bluetooth, 144
figure of merit, 570–571
fractional-N synthesizers, 716, 723
free-running, 655
frequency multiplication, 610
FSK, 112
integer-N synthesizers, 656, 666, 869–877
low-noise, 573–575
mathematical model, 577–581
multiphase frequency division, 745–748
overview, 518–521
PLLs, 603–606
offset, 672–673
phase alignment, 600–601
PLL-based modulation, 667–668
polar modulation, 797–798
transceiver design, 842, 845–847
tuning, 521–522
amplitude variation with frequency tuning, 532
continuous, 524–532
discrete, 532–536
range limitations, 521–522
varactor Q, 522–524
Voltage-dependent capacitors, 483–490
Voltage gain, 7–9
conversion. See Conversion gain
LNA common-gate stage, 276
Voltage swings, 9
flicker noise, 566
power amplifiers, 756, 762, 778, 792, 816, 861–863
Voltage-to-current (V/I) conversion
downconversion, 368–369
upconversion, 867–868
Voltage-voltage feedback in common-gate LNAs, 296
Volterra series
nonlinear currents, 81–85
overview, 77–81
W
Walsh code, 127
Weaver receivers, 210–213
Wideband CDMA, 139–143
Width mismatches in PFD/CP, 627–630
Wilkinson combiners, 827–829
Wilkinson dividers, 828
Wire capacitance and inductors, 441
Wire resistance and inductors, 444–448
Wireless communication overview, 1–3
big picture, 4–5
RF challenges, 3–4
Wireless standards, 130–132
Bluetooth, 143–147
GSM, 132–137
IEEE802.11a/b/g, 147–151
IS-95 CDMA, 137–139
wideband CDMA, 139–143
Wires
bond. See Bond wires
transmission lines. See Transmission lines (T-lines)
X
XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gates, 152
XOR (exclusive-OR) gates
current-steering circuits, 685–686
phase detectors, 598–599
PLLs, 603
reference doubling, 743
Z
Zero crossings
Miller dividers, 701–702
mixer flicker noise, 385–386, 407–408
phase-modulated signals, 95
Zero-IF architecture, 179
Zero second IFs in heterodyne receivers, 171–174