Selecting a brand name for a new product is certainly an art and a science. Figure 4-3 displays the different types of possible brand names according to brand identity experts Lippincott. Like any brand element, brand names must be chosen with the six general criteria of memorability, meaningfulness, likability, transferability, adaptability, and protectability in mind.

Brand Associations

Because the brand name is a compact form of communication, the explicit and implicit meanings consumers extract from it are important. In naming a new peer-to-peer communication technology, the founders landed on the descriptive “Sky peer-to-peer” which they decided to shorten to Skyper. When the corresponding Web address Skyper.com was not available, they shortened it again to the much more user-friendly Skype.17

The brand name can be chosen to reinforce an important attribute or benefit association that makes up its product positioning (see Figure 4-4). Besides performance-related considerations, brand names can also communicate more abstract considerations as do names like Joy dishwashing liquid, Caress soap, and Obsession perfume. Consider the reasoning behind the name of Colgate’s new mini toothbrush.

Colgate Wisp

Famed brand-identity firm Lexicon has developed some wildly successful brand names, such as BlackBerry, Dasani, Febreze, OnStar, Pentium, Scion, and Swiffer. To develop a name for a new disposable mini toothbrush from Colgate, the firm went through a careful development process. The center of the disposable toothbrush held a dab of special toothpaste that made rinsing unnecessary and brushing on the go possible. Deciding to focus on the lightness, softness, and gentleness of the product, Lexicon’s global network of 70 linguists in 50 countries brainstormed metaphors and sounds that conveyed lightness. One name—Wisp—jumped out at company founder David Placek. Subsequent consumer research validated its positive connotations, and a new name was born.18

A descriptive brand name should make it easier to link the reinforced attribute or benefit.19 Consumers will find it easier to believe that a laundry detergent “adds fresh scent” to clothes if it has a name like “Blossom” than if it’s called something neutral like “Circle.”20 However, brand names that reinforce the initial positioning of a brand may make it harder to link new associations to the brand if it later has to be repositioned.21 For example, if a laundry detergent named Blossom is positioned as “adding fresh scent,” it may be more difficult to later reposition the product, if necessary, and add a new brand association that it “fights tough stains.” Consumers may find it more difficult to accept or just too easy to forget the new positioning when the brand name continues to remind them of other product considerations.

With sufficient time and the proper marketing programs, however, this difficulty can sometimes be overcome. Southwest Airlines no longer stands for airline service just in Texas and the southwestern United States; and RadioShack doesn’t just provide equipment for ham radio operators and now sells a wide variety of consumer electronics. Such marketing maneuvers can be a long and expensive process, however. Imagine the difficulty of repositioning brands such as “I Can’t Believe It’s Not Butter!” or “Gee, Your Hair Smells Terrific!” Thus, it is important when choosing a meaningful name to consider the possibility of later repositioning and the necessity of linking other associations.

Meaningful names are not restricted to real words. Consumers can extract meaning, if they so desire, even from made-up or fanciful brand names. For example, one study of computer-generated brand names containing random combinations of syllables found that “whumies” and “quax” reminded consumers of a breakfast cereal and that “dehax” reminded them of a laundry detergent.22 Thus, consumers were able to extract at least some product meaning from these essentially arbitrary names when instructed to do so. Nevertheless, consumers are likely to extract meaning from highly abstract names only when they are sufficiently motivated.

Marketers generally devise made-up brand names systematically, basing words on combinations of morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit having meaning. There are 7,000 morphemes in the English language, including real words like “man” and prefixes, suffixes, or roots. For example, Nissan’s Sentra automobile is a combination of two morphemes suggesting “central” and “sentry.”23 By combining carefully chosen morphemes, marketers can construct brand names that actually have some relatively easily inferred or implicit meaning.

Brand names raise a number of interesting linguistic issues.24 Figure 4-5 contains an overview of different categories of linguistic characteristics, with definitions and examples. Even individual letters can contain meaning that may be useful in developing a new brand name. The letter X became popular (e.g., ESPN’s X Games and Nissan’s Xterra SUV) because X represents “extreme,” “on the edge,” and “youth.”25 Research has shown that in some instances, consumers prefer products with brand names bearing some of the letters from their own name (Jonathan may exhibit a greater-than-expected preference for a product named Jonoki).26

The sounds of letters can take on meaning as well.27 For example, some words begin with phonemic elements called plosives, like the letters b, c, d, g, k, p, and t, whereas others use sibilants, which are sounds like s and soft c. Plosives escape from the mouth more quickly than sibilants and are harsher and more direct. Consequently, they are thought to make names more specific and less abstract, and to be more easily recognized and recalled.28 On the other hand, because sibilants have a softer sound, they tend to conjure up romantic, serene images and are often found in the names of products such as perfumes—think of Chanel, Ciara (by Revlon), and Shalimar and Samsara (Guerlin).29

One study found a relationship between certain characteristics of the letters of brand names and product features: As consonant hardness and vowel pitch increased in hypothetical brand names for toilet paper and household cleansers, consumer perception of the harshness of the product also increased.30 The actual font or logotype used to express the brand name may also change consumer impressions.31

Brands are not restricted to letters alone.32 Alphanumeric names may include a mixture of letters and digits (WD-40), a mixture of words and digits (Formula 409), or mixtures of letters or words and numbers in written form (Saks Fifth Avenue). They can also designate generations or relationships in a product line like BMW’s 3, 5, and 7 series.

Characteristics	Definitions and/or Examples
Phonetic Devices
Alliteration	Consonant repetition (Coca-Cola)
Assonance	Vowel repetition (Kal Kan)
Consonance	Consonant repetition with intervening vowel changes (Weight Watchers)
Masculine rhyme	Rhyme with end-of-syllable stress (Max Pax)
Feminine rhyme	Unaccented syllable followed by accented syllable (American Airlines)
Weak/imperfect/slant rhyme	Vowels differ or consonants similar, not identical (Black & Decker)
Onomatopoeia	Use of syllable phonetics to resemble the object itself (Wisk)
Clipping	Product names attenuated (Chevy)
Blending	Morphemic combination, usually with elision (Aspergum, Duracell)
Initial plosives	/b/, /c-hard/, /d/, /g-hard/, /k/, /p/, /q/, /t/ (Bic)
Orthographic Devices
Unusual or incorrect spellings	Kool-Aid
Abbreviations	7 UP for Seven Up
Acronyms	Amoco
Morphologic Devices
Affixation	Jell-O
Compounding	Janitor-in-a-Drum
Semantic Devices
Metaphor	Representing something as if it were something else (Arrid); simile is included with metaphor when a name describes a likeness and not an equality (AquaFresh)
Metonymy	Application of one object or quality for another (Midas)
Synecdoche	Substitution of a part for the whole (Red Lobster)
Personification/pathetic fallacy	Humanizing the nonhuman, or ascription of human emotions to the inanimate (Betty Crocker)
Oxymoron	Conjunction of opposites (Easy-Off)
Paranomasia	Pun and word plays (Hawaiian Punch)
Semantic appositeness	Fit of name with object (Bufferin)

A number of different procedures or systems have been suggested for naming new products. Most adopt a procedure something along the following lines. Figure 4-6 displays some common naming mistakes according to leading marketing and branding consultancy Lippincott.33

1. Define objectives. First, define the branding objectives in terms of the six general criteria we noted earlier, and in particular define the ideal meaning the brand should convey. Recognize the role of the brand within the corporate branding hierarchy and how it should relate to other brands and products (we’ll discuss this in Chapter 11). In many cases, existing brand names may serve, at least in part. Finally, understand the role of the brand within the entire marketing program and the target market.

   1	Using cliched words such as “Innovation” or “Solution” in a name.	In most industry situations these kinds of words are so overused, they no longer have meaning.
   2	Insisting on a name that can be found in an English dictionary.	Not only are such names scarce, they also may cause translation or other linguistic problems.
   3	Taking the easy way out and settling on initials.	Initials may be easier to trademark, but an enormous budget is typically required to give them meaning.
   4	Using terms like “Extra,” “Plus,” or “New” to communicate next generation products or improved line extensions.	Three more examples of words that have lost their meaning through overuse.
   5	Adopting license-plate shorthand.	A name that customers have to work too hard to figure out is a turnoff—and a wasted opportunity.
   6	Seeing how many names can be combined to make a confusing brand	Most that initially started in this direction have truncated to simpler shorter alternatives.
   7	Asking for suggestions from friends and other uninformed sources.	The results that come from this approach seldom relate to or express a company’s business startegy.

2. Generate names. With the branding strategy in place, next generate as many names and concepts as possible. Any potential sources of names are valid: company management and employees; existing or potential customers (including retailers or suppliers if relevant); ad agencies, professional name consultants, and specialized computer-based naming companies. Tens, hundreds, or even thousands of names may result from this step.

3. Screen initial candidates. Screen all the names against the branding objectives and marketing considerations identified in step 1 and apply the test of common sense to produce a more manageable list. For example, General Mills starts by eliminating the following:

   • Names that have unintentional double meaning

   • Names that are unpronounceable, already in use, or too close to an existing name

   • Names that have obvious legal complications

   • Names that represent an obvious contradiction of the positioning

   Next General Mills runs in-depth evaluation sessions with management personnel and marketing partners to narrow the list to a handful of names, often conducting a quick-and-dirty legal search to help screen out possible problems.

4. Study candidate names. Collect more extensive information about each of the final 5–10 names. Before spending large amounts of money on consumer research, it is usually advisable to do an extensive international legal search. Because this step is expensive, marketers often search on a sequential basis, testing in each country only those names that survived the legal screening from the previous country.

5. Research the final candidates. Next, conduct consumer research to confirm management expectations about the memorability and meaningfulness of the remaining names. Consumer testing can take all forms. Many firms attempt to simulate the actual marketing program and consumers’ likely purchase experiences as much as possible.34 Thus, they may show consumers the product and its packaging, price, or promotion so that they understand the rationale for the brand name and how it will be used. Other aids in this kind of research are realistic three-dimensional packages and concept boards or low-cost animatic advertising using digital techniques. Marketers may survey many consumers to capture differences in regional or ethnic appeal. They should also factor in the effects of repeated exposure to the brand name and what happens when the name is spoken versus written.

6. Select the final name. Based on all the information collected from the previous step, management should choose the name that maximizes the firm’s branding and marketing objectives and then formally register it.

Some segment of consumers or another will always have at least some potentially negative associations with a new brand name. In most cases, however, assuming they are not severe, these associations will disappear after the initial marketing launch. Some consumers will dislike a new brand name because it’s unfamiliar or represents a deviation from the norm. Marketers should remember to separate these temporal considerations from more enduring effects. Here is how a new airline arrived at its name.35

Jetblue

Traditionally, airlines use descriptive names that evoke specific geographic origins, like American, or broad geographic reach, like United. In launching a new airline with a fresh concept—stylish travel for the budget-minded flier—JetBlue decided it needed an evocative name, but not one that sounded like an airline. Working with its ad agency, Merkley & Partners, and brand consultant, Landor, the company generated a list of candidate names—Fresh Air, Taxi, Egg, and It. The name Blue, suggesting peaceful clear skies, quickly became a favorite, but trademark lawyers noted that it would be impossible to protect the name without a distinctive qualifier. The first candidate, TrueBlue, went by the wayside when it was found to also be the name of a car rental agency. JetBlue emerged as the best substitute and the brand was born. JetBlue has also leveraged the “jet” portion of its brand name with its optimistic “jetting” campaign, which occurred during the economic downturn and was a response to difficult times in the airline industry. The ads served to distinguish JetBlue and its “maverick” approach to service. Its “TrueBlue” loyalty program cleverly leverages the second half of its name.36

Logos and symbols are often easily recognized and can be a valuable way to identify products, although consumers may recognize them but be unable to link them to any specific product or brand. Many insurance firms use symbols of strength (the Rock of Gibraltar for Prudential and the stag for Hartford) or security (the “good hands” of Allstate, the hard hat of Fireman’s Fund, and the red umbrella of Travelers).

Another branding advantage of logos is their versatility: Because they are often nonverbal, logos transfer well across cultures and over a range of product categories. For example, corporate brands often develop logos in order to confer their identity on a wide range of products and to endorse different sub-brands. Marketers must think carefully, however, as to how prominent the brand name and logo should be on any product, especially more luxury ones.42

Abstract logos offer advantages when the full brand name is difficult to use for any reason. In the United Kingdom, for example, National Westminster Bank created a triangular device as a logo because the name itself was long and cumbersome and the logo could more easily appear as an identification device on checkbooks, literature, signage, and promotional material. The logo also uses the shortened version of the company name, NatWest.43

Finally, unlike brand names, logos can be easily adapted over time to achieve a more contemporary look. For example, in 2000, John Deere revamped its deer trademark for the first time in 32 years, making the animal appear to be leaping up rather than landing. The change was intended to “convey a message of strength and agility with a technology edge.”44

In updating, however, marketers should make gradual changes and not lose sight of the inherent advantages of the logo. In the 1980s, the trend for many firms was to create more abstract, stylized versions of their logos. In the process, some of the meaning residing in these logos, and thus some equity, was lost. Recognizing the logo’s potential contribution to brand equity, some firms in the 1990s reverted to a more traditional look for their symbols.

Prudential’s Rock of Gibraltar logo was changed back from black-and-white slanted lines introduced in 1984 to a more faithful rendition. To harken back to its historic past and reflect its engineering and design prowess, Chrysler used a winged badge to replace the Pentastar five-pointed star design as a symbol of the brand. The wings, intended to symbolize freedom and flying, were found on the first Chrysler manufactured in 1924.

Regardless of the reason for doing it, changing a logo is not cheap. According to branding experts, engaging a firm for four to six months to create a symbol or remaking an old one for a big brand “usually costs $1 million.”45

Because they are often colorful and rich in imagery, brand characters tend to be attention getting and quite useful for creating brand awareness. Brand characters can help brands break through marketplace clutter as well as help communicate a key product benefit. For example, Maytag’s Lonely Repairman has helped reinforce the company’s key “reliability” product association.

The human element of brand characters can enhance likeability and help create perceptions of the brand as fun and interesting.47 A consumer may more easily form a relationship with a brand when the brand literally has a human or other character presence. Characters avoid many of the problems that plague human spokespeople—they don’t grow old, demand pay raises, or cheat on their wives. An interesting exception occurred, however, when Aflac fired the human voice to its famed duck character, comedian Gilbert Gottfried, after he posted some controversial remarks on Twitter that made light of the fallout from the earthquake and tsunami in Japan.48

Finally, because brand characters do not typically have direct product meaning, they may also be transferred relatively easily across product categories. For example, Aaker notes that “the Keebler’s elf identity (which combines a sense of home-style baking with a touch of magic and fun) gives the brand latitude to extend into other baked goods—and perhaps even into other types of food where homemade magic and fun might be perceived as a benefit.”49 Popular characters also often become valuable licensing properties, providing direct revenue and additional brand exposure.

There are some cautions and drawbacks to using brand characters. Brand characters can be so attention getting and well liked that they dominate other brand elements and actually dampen brand awareness.

Characters often must be updated over time so that their image and personality remain relevant to the target market. Japan’s famous Hello Kitty character, which became a multibillion dollar product and license powerhouse, found its sales shrinking over the last decade, a victim in part of overexposure and a failure to make the character modern and appealing across multiple media.51

In general, the more realistic the brand character, the more important it is to keep it up-to-date. One advantage of fictitious or animated characters is that their appeal can be more enduring and timeless than that of real people. Branding Brief 4-1 describes the efforts by General Mills to evolve the Betty Crocker character over time. Finally, some characters are so culturally specific that they do not travel well to other countries. The Science of Branding 4-2 describes some guidelines from a leading consultant.

Some slogans help build brand awareness by playing off the brand name in some way, as in “The Citi Never Sleeps.” Others build brand awareness even more explicitly by making strong links between the brand and the corresponding product category, like when Lifetime would advertise that it was “Television for Women.” Most important, slogans can help reinforce the brand positioning as in “Staples. That Was Easy.” For HBO, a slogan was critical to conveying its unique positioning.

HBO

As a pay TV channel, HBO has always needed to convince viewers it was worth paying extra money for. More than just a pay movie channel, HBO had a tradition of broadcasting original, edgy programming such as Sex and the City, The Sopranos, and Entourage that would not be found on free channels. To highlight its most compelling point-of-difference and brand essence, HBO developed a clever slogan in 1996: “It’s Not TV, It’s HBO.” Externally, the slogan gave viewers a point of reference to understand and categorize the brand. Internally, the slogan gave employees a clear vision and goal to keep in mind: No matter what they did, it should never look like ordinary TV.53

Slogans often become closely tied to advertising campaigns and serve as tag lines to summarize the descriptive or persuasive information conveyed in the ads. DeBeers’s “A Diamond Is Forever” tag line communicates that diamonds bring eternal love and romance and never lose value. Slogans can be more expansive and more enduring than just ad tag lines, though campaign-specific tag lines may help reinforce the message of a particular campaign instead of the brand slogan for a certain period of time.

For example, through the years, Nike has used tag lines specific to ad campaigns for events or sports such as “Prepare for Battle” and “Quick Can’t Be Caught” (basketball); “Write the Future,” (World Cup); “My Better Is Better” (multisport); and “Here I Am” (women) instead of the well-known brand slogan, “Just Do It.” Such substitutions can emphasize that the ad campaign represents a departure of some kind from the message conveyed by the brand slogan, or just a means to give the brand slogan a rest so that it remains fresh.

Some of the most powerful slogans contribute to brand equity in multiple ways.54 They can play off the brand name to build both awareness and image, such as “Be Certain with Certs” for Certs breath mints; “Maybe She’s Born with It, Maybe It’s Maybelline” for Maybelline cosmetics; or “The Big Q Stands for Quality” for Quaker State motor oil.

Slogans also can contain product-related messages and other meanings. Consider the historical Champion sportswear slogan, “It Takes a Little More to Make a Champion.” The slogan could be interpreted in terms of product performance, meaning that Champion sportswear is made with a little extra care or with extra-special materials, but it could mean that Champion sportswear is associated with top athletes. This combination of superior product performance and aspirational user imagery is a powerful platform on which to build brand image and equity.

Benetton has had an equally strong slogan on which to build brand equity (“United Colors of Benetton”), but as Branding Brief 4-2 describes, the company has not always taken full advantage of it.

Some slogans become so strongly linked to the brand that it becomes difficult to introduce new ones (take the famous slogan quiz in Figure 4-7 and check the accompanying footnote to see how many slogans you can correctly identify). Marketers of 7UP tried a number of different successors to the popular “Uncola” slogan—including “Freedom of Choice,” “Crisp and Clean and No Caffeine,” “Don’t You Feel Good About 7UP,” and “Feels So Good Coming Down,” and for over five years the somewhat edgy “Make 7UP Yours.” A new ad in 2011 featuring hip-hop singer–songwriter Cee Lo Green beatboxing used yet another tag line, “Be Yourself. Be Refreshing. Be 7UP.”

A slogan that becomes so strongly identified with a brand can box it in. Or successful slogans can take on lives of their own and become public catch phrases (like Wendy’s “Where’s the Beef?” in the 1980s, MasterCard’s “Priceless” in the 1990s, and the “Got Milk?” spoofs in the 2000s), but there can also be a down side to this kind of success: the slogan can quickly become overexposed and lose specific brand or product meaning.

Once a slogan achieves such a high level of recognition and acceptance, it may still contribute to brand equity, but probably as more of a reminder of the brand. Consumers are unlikely to consider what the slogan means in a thoughtful way after seeing or hearing it too many times. At the same time, a potential difficulty arises if the slogan continues to convey some product meaning that the brand no longer needs to reinforce. In this case, by not facilitating the linkage of new, desired brand associations, the slogan can become restrictive and fail to allow the brand to be updated as much as desired or necessary.

Because slogans are perhaps the easiest brand element to change over time, marketers have more flexibility in managing them. In changing slogans, however, they must do the following:

1. Recognize how the slogan is contributing to brand equity, if at all, through enhanced awareness or image.

2. Decide how much of this equity enhancement, if any, is still needed.

3. Retain the needed or desired equities still residing in the slogan as much as possible while providing whatever new twists of meaning are necessary to contribute to equity in other ways.

Sometimes modifying an existing slogan is more fruitful than introducing a new slogan with a completely new set of meanings. For example, Dockers switched its slogan from the well-received “Nice Pants” to “One Leg at a Time” in the late 1990s before reverting to the previous slogan when recognizing it had given up too much built-up equity.

Often, one of the strongest associations consumers have with a brand is inspired by the look of its packaging. For example, if you ask the average consumer what comes to mind when he or she thinks of Heineken beer, a common response is a “green bottle.” The package can become an important means of brand recognition and convey or imply information to build or reinforce valuable brand associations. Molson’s beer sales increased by 40 percent in the United States after the company modified the bottle’s back labels to include cheeky “ice-breakers” for bar patrons such as “On the Rebound,” “Sure, You Can Have My Number,” and “Fairly Intimidated by Your Beauty.” Buoyed by that success, they later introduced “Answer Honestly” bottle back labels that gave drinkers challenging choices to mull over.61

Structural packaging innovations can create a point-of-difference that permits a higher margin. New packages can also expand a market and capture new market segments. Packaging changes can have immediate impact on customer shopping behavior and sales: a redesign of Häagen-Dazs packaging increased flavor shoppability by 21 percent; General Mills saw an increase in sales of 80 percent after redesigning Bisquick Shake n’ Pour package to improve its ergonomics and by creating a “smooth, curvy form that reinforces the brand equity”; and a redesign on the packaging for Jimmy Dean’s Biscuit Sandwiches lead to an increase of 13 percent in household penetration.62

One of the major packaging trends of recent years is to make both bigger and smaller packaged versions of products (as well as portions) to appeal to new market segments.63 Jumbo sizes have been successfully introduced for hot dogs, pizzas, English muffins, frozen dinners, and beer. Pillsbury’s Grands! biscuits—40 percent larger than existing offerings—were the most successful new product in the company’s 126-year history when introduced. But sometimes smaller has proven to be successful too.

100-Calorie Packs

By 2007, a few years after their introduction by Kraft, 100-calorie snack packs of crackers, chips, cookies, and candy had passed the $200-million mark. Truly a consumer-driven packaging innovation, they had an appeal that was plain and simple—portion control made easy. The products were identical to those in larger packages but conveniently placed in handy 100-calorie packs for which calorie-conscious consumers were willing to pay a premium. With sales of the packs growing at almost 30 percent a year by 2007, most top food manufacturers—including Kraft’s Nabisco, Hershey, PepsiCo’s Frito-Lay and Quaker Oats, and Campbell’s Pepperidge Farm—introduced their own versions. In the years that followed, however, the 100-calorie snack pack market began to slow down. A number of factors contributed to the cooling off, such as market saturation (190 products were introduced in 2008 and at least 68 in 2009) and customer concerns about their actual effectiveness in controlling caloric intake, their relatively high price, and the amount of wasteful packaging.64

The right packaging can create strong appeal on the store shelf and help products stand out from the clutter, critical when you realize that the average supermarket shopper can be exposed to 20,000 or more products in a shopping visit that may last less than 30 minutes and include many unplanned purchases. Many consumers may first encounter a new brand on the supermarket shelf or in the store. Because few product differences exist in some categories, packaging innovations can provide at least a temporary edge on competition.

For these reasons, packaging is a particularly cost-effective way to build brand equity.65 It is sometimes called the “last five seconds of marketing” as well as “permanent media” or “the last salesman.” Walmart looks at packaging critically and tests whether consumers understand the brand promise behind the package within three seconds and up to 15 feet from the shelf. Note that consumer exposure to packaging is not restricted to the point of purchase and moments of consumption, because brand packages often can play a starring role in advertising.

Packaging innovations can both lower costs and/or improve demand. One important supply-side goal for many firms is to redesign packages and employ more recyclable materials to lower the use of paper and plastic. Toward that goal, U.S. food, beverage, and consumer product manufacturers reported that they had eliminated 1.5 billion pounds of packaging between 2005 and 2011 with another 2.5 billion pounds expected to be avoided by 2020, representing an overall reduction of 19 percent in total average U.S. packaging weight.66

On the demand side, in mature markets especially, package innovations can provide a short-term sales boost. The beverage industry in general has been characterized by a number of packaging innovations. For example, following the lead of Snapple’s wide-mouth glass bottle, Arizona iced teas and fruit drinks in oversize (24-ounce), pastel-colored cans with a southwestern motif became a $300 million brand in a few years with no marketing support beyond point-of-purchase and rudimentary outdoor ads, designed in-house.67

An integral part of product development and launch, package design has become a more sophisticated process. In the past, it was often an afterthought, and colors, materials, and so forth were often chosen fairly arbitrarily. For example, legend has it that Campbell’s famous soup is red and white because one executive at the company liked the uniforms of Cornell University’s football team!

These days, specialized package designers bring artistic techniques and scientific skills to package design in an attempt to meet the marketing objectives for a brand. These consultants conduct detailed analyses to break down the package into a number of different elements.68 They decide on the optimal look and content of each element and choose which elements should be dominant in any one package—whether the brand name, illustration, or some other graphical element—and how the elements should relate to each other. Designers can also decide which elements should be shared across packages and which should differ (and how).

Designers often refer to the “shelf impact” of a package—the visual effect the package has at the point of the purchase when consumers see it in the context of other packages in the category. For example, “bigger and brighter” packages are not always better when competitors’ packages are also factored in.69 Given enough shelf space, however, manufacturers can create billboard effects with their brand to raise their prominence and impact. General Mill deliberately “tiled” graphical elements of their packaging so that some of their mega-brands with multiple varieties such as Cheerios, Nature Valley Granola Bars, and Progresso Soup would stand out.70

Although packaging is subject to some legal requirements, such as nutrition information on food products, there is plenty of scope for improving brand awareness and forming brand associations. Perhaps one of the most important visual design elements for a package is its color.71 Some package designers believe that consumers have a “color vocabulary” when it comes to products and expect certain types of products to have a particular look.

For example, it would be difficult to sell milk in anything but a white carton, club soda in anything but a blue package, and so forth. At the same time, certain brands are thought to have “color ownership” such that it would be difficult for other brands to use a similar look. Here is how some experts see the brand color palette:72

• Red: Ritz crackers, Folgers coffee, Colgate toothpaste, Target retailer, and Coca-Cola soft drinks

• Orange: Tide laundry detergent, Wheaties cereal, Home Depot retailer, and Stouffer’s frozen dinners

• Yellow: Kodak film, Juicy Fruit chewing gum, McDonald’s restaurants, IKEA retailers, Cheerios cereal, Lipton tea, and Bisquick biscuit mix

• Green: Del Monte canned vegetables, Green Giant frozen vegetables, Walmart retailers, Starbucks coffee, BP retail gasoline, and 7UP lemon-lime soft drink

• Blue: IBM technology and services, Ford automobiles, Windex cleaner, Downy fabric softener, and Pepsi-Cola soft drinks

Packaging color can affect consumers’ perceptions of the product itself.73 For example, the darker the orange shade of a can or bottle, the sweeter consumers believe the drink inside to be. Color is thus a critical element of packaging. Like other packaging design elements, color should be consistent with information conveyed by other aspects of the marketing program.

Although packaging changes can be expensive, they can be cost-effective compared with other marketing communication costs. Firms change their packaging for a number of reasons:74

• To signal a higher price, or to more effectively sell products through new or shifting distribution channels. For instance, Kendall Oil redid its package to make it more appealing to do-it-yourselfers when it found more of its sales coming from supermarkets and hardware stores rather than service stations.

• When a significant product line expansion would benefit from a common look, as with Planter’s nuts, Weight Watchers foods, and Stouffer’s frozen foods.

• To accompany a new product innovation to signal changes to consumers. To emphasize the brand’s “green” heritage, Stevia redesigned the packaging on its SweetLeaf product, changing the look and the size and promoting the 100 percent recycled materials used in its manufacture.75

• When the old package just looks outdated. Kraft updated its Macaroni & Cheese packaging in 2010—the first time in more than 10 years—to better underscore the brand’s core equities (happiness, smiles, and joy) through a “noodle smile” symbol as well as to unify its three sub-brands.76

Packaging changes have accelerated in recent years as marketers have sought to gain an advantage wherever possible. As one Coca-Cola ad executive noted, “There’s no question the crowded marketplace has inspired companies to change their boxes more often, and there’s greater use of promotional packages to give the appearance that things are changing.”

In making a packaging change, marketers need to recognize its effect on the original or current customer franchise for the brand.77 Under these circumstances, marketers must not lose the key package equities that have been built up. Branding Brief 4-3 describes some setbacks marketers have faced updating packaging and other brand elements in recent years.

To identify or confirm key package equities, consumer research is usually helpful (see Branding Brief 4-3). If packaging recognition is a critical consumer success factor for the brand, however, marketers must be especially careful. It would be a mistake to change the packaging so significantly that consumers don’t recognize it in the store. Retailers’ opinions can also be important too.

Some marketing observers consider packaging important enough to be the “fifth P” of the marketing mix. Packaging can play an important role in building brand equity directly, through points-of-difference created by functional or aesthetic elements of the packaging, or indirectly through the reinforcement of brand awareness and image. The Science of Branding 4-3 reviews some insightful academic research.78