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GLOSSARY
3S tourism a tourism product based on the provision of sea, sand and sun; that is, focusing on beach resorts.
8P model a product-focused marketing mix model that incorporates place, product, people, price, packaging, programming, promotion and partnerships.
Academic discipline a systematic field of study that is informed by a particular set of theories and methodologies in its attempt to reveal and expand relevant knowledge; e.g. psychology examines individual behaviour, while geography examines spatial patterns and relationships.
Accommodation within the context of the tourism industry, commercial facilities primarily intended to host stayover tourists for overnight stays.
Accreditation the process by which the ecolabel is determined by an overarching organisation to meet specified standards of quality and credibility.
Adaptancy platform a follow-up on the cautionary platform that argues for alternative forms of tourism deemed to be better adapted to local communities than mass tourism.
Advanced economies a designation by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) of countries that are characterised by a high level of economic development and accompanying social indicators; these countries continue to account for most outbound and inbound international tourism activity.
Advocacy platform the view that tourism is an inherent benefit to communities that should be developed under free market principles.
Allocentrics according to Plog’s typology, ‘other-centred’ tourists who enjoy exposing themselves to other cultures and new experiences, and are willing to take risks in this process.
Alternative tourism the major contribution of the adaptancy platform, alternative tourism as an ideal type is characterised by its contrast with mass tourism.
Amenity migrants people who move to an area because of its recreational and lifestyle amenities, including comfortable weather and beautiful scenery; amenity migrants are usually first exposed to such places through their own tourist experiences.
Applied research research that addresses some particular problem or attempts to achieve a particular set of outcomes; it is usually constrained by set time schedules.
Asian Century the projected economic and cultural dominance of Asia during the twenty-first century, including its status as a major destination region and source of outbound tourists.
Attraction attributes characteristics of an attraction that are relevant to the management of an area as a tourist destination and thus should be periodically measured and monitored; includes ownership, orientation, spatial configuration, authenticity, scarcity, status, carrying capacity, accessibility, market and image.
Attraction inventory a systematic list of the tourist attractions found in a particular destination.
Autoethnography a form of qualitative research in which the researcher positions herself or himself as a subject of investigation.
Avalanche effect the process whereby a small incremental change in a system triggers a disproportionate and usually unexpected response.
Aviation biofuel renewable plant or animal-based aircraft fuels; these are being more commonly used in commercial aviation, and mostly at present to supplement conventional fossil fuel loads.
Baby boomers people born during the post–World War II period of high TFRs (roughly 1946 to 1964), who constitute a noticeable bulge within the population pyramid of Australia and other Phase Four countries.
Backstage the opposite of frontstage; areas of the destination where personal or intragroup activities occur, such as noncommercialised cultural performances. A particular space may be designated as either frontstage or backstage depending on the time of day or year.
Backward linkages sectors of an economy that provide goods and services for the tourism sector; includes agriculture, fisheries and construction.
Basic research research that is broadly focused on the revelation of new knowledge, and is not directed towards specific outcomes or problems.
Basic whole tourism system an application of a systems approach to tourism, wherein tourism is seen as consisting of three geographical components (origin, transit and destination regions), tourists and a tourism industry, embedded within a modifying external environment that includes parallel political, social, physical and other systems.
Behavioural segmentation the identification of tourist markets on the basis of activities and actions undertaken during the actual tourism experience.
Benchmark an indicator value, often based on some past desirable state, against which subsequent change in that indicator can be gauged.
BRICS countries Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa, which account for 40 per cent of the world’s population and are expected to achieve Burton’s Phase Four status within two decades.
Broad context model of destination development scenarios a framework for modelling the evolution of tourist destinations, which takes into account scale and sustainability-related regulations; various transformations are possible among four ideal tourism types CAT, DAT, UMT (unsustainable mass tourism) and SMT (sustainable mass tourism).
Butler sequence the most widely cited and applied destination cycle model, which proposes five stages of cyclical evolution described by an S-shaped curve; these might then be followed by three other possible scenarios.
Carrying capacity the amount of tourism activity (e.g. number of visitors, amount of development) that can be accommodated without incurring serious harm to a destination; distinctions can be made between social, cultural and environmental carrying capacity, all of which can be adjusted with appropriate management.
Cautionary platform a reaction to the advocacy platform that stresses the negative impacts of tourism and the consequent need for strict regulation.
Certification the outcome of a process in which an independent third party verifies that a product or company meets specified standards, allowing it to be certified by the ecolabel.
Circumstantial alternative tourism (CAT) alternative tourism that results by default from the fact that the destination is currently situated within the early, low-intensity stages of the resort cycle.
Climate change the gradual increase in global surface temperatures that is usually attributed to the excessive release of heat-trapping greenhouse gases through human activity such as the burning of fossil fuels; human responses are usually divided into distinctive adaptation and mitigation categories.
Codes of practice commonly developed and espoused by tourism corporations and industry associations, these are intended to provide general guidelines for achieving sustainability-related outcomes.
Commodification in tourism, the process whereby a destination’s culture is gradually converted into a saleable commodity or product in response to the perceived or actual demands of the tourist market.
Condensed development sequence the process whereby societies undergo the transition to a Phase Four state within an increasingly reduced period of time.
Consolidation as local carrying capacities are exceeded, the rate of growth declines; the destination is now almost wholly dominated by tourism.
Contagious diffusion spread occurs as a function of spatial proximity; the closer a site is to the place of the innovation’s origin, the sooner it is likely to be exposed to that phenomenon.
Contemporary heritage structures and other sites from the latter half of the twentieth century that are deemed to be important as heritage sites; especially relevant to tourism cities that lack connections with a deeper history.
Corporate social responsibility the concept that corporations have a moral duty to operate in a socially and environmentally responsible way; it is increasingly recognised as a business imperative that combines elements of the green (i.e. ‘social responsibility’) and dominant Western environmental (‘corporate’) paradigms.
Cross-sectional research a ‘snapshot’ approach to research that considers one or more sites at one particular point in time.
Crusades a series of campaigns to ‘liberate’ Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim control. While not a form of tourism as such, the Crusades helped to re-open Europe to the outside world and spawn an incipient travel industry.
Culinary tourism tourism that involves the consumption of usually locally produced food and drink.
Cultural events attractions that occur over a fixed period of time in one or more locations, and are more constructed than natural; these include historical commemorations and re-creations, world fairs, sporting events and festivals.
Cultural sites geographically fixed attractions that are more constructed than natural; these can be classified into prehistorical, historical, contemporary, economic, specialised recreational and retail subcategories.
Dark Ages the period from about AD 500 to 1100, characterised by a serious deterioration in social, economic and political conditions within Europe.
Dark tourism tourism involving sites or events associated with death or suffering, including battlefields and sites of mass killings or assassinations.
Data analysis the process by which the collected information is examined and assessed to identify patterns that address the research questions.
Data collection the gathering of relevant information by way of the techniques identified in the research methodology stage.
Data interpretation the stage during which meaning is extracted from the data.
Data presentation the stage during which the results of the analysis are communicated to the target audience.
Decline the scenario of declining visitor intake that is likely to ensue if no measures are taken to arrest the process of product deterioration and resident/tourist discontent.
Decommissioning the process whereby vendors of travel products (e.g. airlines, cruise lines) no longer provide a monetary or other commission to an intermediary such as a travel agency in exchange for the sale of their products to consumers.
Deduction an approach in basic research that begins with a basic theory that is applied to a set of data to see whether the theory is applicable or not.
Deliberate alternative tourism (DAT) alternative tourism that is deliberately maintained as such through the implementation of an enabling regulatory environment.
Demarketing the process of discouraging all or certain tourists from visiting a particular destination temporarily or permanently.
Demographic transition model (DTM) an idealised depiction of the process whereby societies evolve from a high fertility/high mortality structure to a low fertility/low mortality structure. This evolution usually parallels the development of a society from a Phase One to a Phase Four profile, as occurred during the Industrial Revolution. A fifth stage may now be emerging, characterised by extremely low birth rates and resultant net population loss.
Demonstration effect the tendency of a population, or some portion thereof, to imitate the consumption patterns and other behaviours of another group; this can result in increased importation of goods and services to meet these changing consumer demands.
Destination branding the process of fostering a distinctive and integrated image about a destination that represents that destination to one or more target markets; usually undertaken by a destination tourism organisation.
Destination community the residents of the destination region.
Destination cycle the theory that tourism-oriented places experience a repeated sequential process of birth, growth, maturation, and then possibly something similar to death, in their evolution as destinations.
Destination government the government of the destination region.
Destination region the places to which the tourist is travelling.
Destination tourism authority (DTA) the government agency responsible for broad tourism policy and planning within a destination entity.
Destination tourism organisations (DTOs) publicly funded government agencies that undertake promotion and other forms of marketing; these are distinct from the government departments or bodies, or government tourism authorities, that dictate tourism-related policy.
Development the accelerated growth of tourism within a relatively short period of time, as this sector becomes a dominant feature of the destination economy and landscape.
Direct (or primary) impact expenditure or direct revenue obtained from tourists.
Direct financial costs direct expenses that are necessarily incurred to sustain the tourism sector; within the public sector, typical areas of outlay include administration and bureaucracy, marketing, research and direct incentives.
Direct revenue money that is obtained directly from tourists through advance or immediate expenditures in the destination and associated taxes.
Discretionary income the amount of income that remains after household necessities such as food, housing, clothing, education and transportation have been purchased.
Discretionary time normally defined as time not spent at work, or in normal rest and bodily maintenance.
Disintermediation the removal of intermediaries such as travel agents from the product/consumer connection.
Distance–decay in tourism, the tendency of inbound flows to decline as origin regions become more distant from the destination.
Domestic excursionists tourists who stay within their own country for less than one night.
Domestic stayovers tourists who stay within their own country for at least one night.
Domestic tourist a tourist whose itinerary is confined to their usual country of residence.
Dominant Western environmental paradigm the scientific paradigm as applied to environmental and related issues, holding the anthropocentric view that humankind is at the centre of all things, and constitutes the primary focus of reference in all relationships with the natural environment; humans are seen as being superior to nature, which exists only for their benefit.
Double-blind peer review a procedure that attempts to maintain objectivity in the manuscript refereeing process by ensuring that the author and reviewers do not know each other’s identity.
Early modern tourism the transitional era between premodern tourism (about AD 1500) and modern mass tourism (since 1950).
Earned time a time management option in which an individual is no longer obligated to work once a particular quota is attained over a defined period of time (often monthly or annual).
Ecolabels mechanisms that certify products or companies that meet specified standards of practice.
Ecolodges typically upscale and environmentally-friendly accommodations which cater to ecotourists wanting convenient access to nearby national parks or other protected areas.
Ecological footprint (EF) the measurement of the resources that are required and wastes generated in sustaining a particular type of tourist or tourism activity.
Ecotourism a form of alternative tourism (and potentially mass tourism) that places primary emphasis on a sustainable, learning-based interaction with the natural environment or some constituent element.
Emerging economies a designation by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) of countries that are characterised by a lower level of economic development and accompanying social indicators; cumulatively, these countries are accounting for a growing share of outbound and inbound international tourism activity.
Emoscape an ‘emotional landscape’ a graphic that depicts the patterns of emotional response that arise from a focus issue or incident; it is extremely useful for gauging the reactions of residents or visitors to tourism-related phenomena.
Emotional labour a characteristic of services marketing, involving the expression of the willingness to be of service to customers, as through demonstrations of assurance, responsiveness and empathy.
Enclave resort a self-contained resort complex; enclave resorts are associated with high revenue leakages because of their propensity to encourage internal spending on imported goods.
Enclave tourism a mode of tourism characterised by external domination and weak linkages with the local economy.
Environmental impact sequence a four-stage model formulated by the OECD to account for the impacts of tourism on the natural environment.
Environmental responses the way that the environment reacts to the stresses, both in the short and long term, and both directly and indirectly.
Environmental stresses the deliberate changes in the environment that are entailed in the stressor activities.
Ephemeral attraction an attraction, such as a wildflower display or rarely filled lakebed, that occurs over a brief period of time or on rare occasions only.
e-WOM electronic word-of-mouth communication disseminated through blogs and other forms of social media.
Excursionist a tourist who spends less than one night in a destination region.
Exploration the earliest stage in the Butler sequence, characterised by few tourist arrivals and little impact associated with tourism.
External-intentional actions deliberate actions that originate from outside the destination.
External-unintentional actions actions that affect the destination, but originate from outside that destination, and are not intentional; these present the greatest challenges to destination managers.
Family lifecycle (FLC) a sequence of stages through which the traditional nuclear family passes from early adulthood to the death of a spouse; each stage is associated with distinct patterns of tourism-related behaviour associated with changing family and financial circumstances.
Film-induced tourism the tourism activity that results from the publicity generated by a particular movie, benefiting mainly the settings where the movie is filmed.
Fixed costs costs that the operation has little flexibility to change over the short term, such as interest costs on borrowed funds and basic facility maintenance costs.
Flashpackers backpackers who are hyper-connected to technology during their travel, thereby creating behaviour that is substantially distinct from conventional backpackers.
Flexitime a time management option in which workers have some flexibility in distributing a required number of working hours (usually weekly) in a manner that suits the lifestyle and productivity of the individual worker.
Formal sector the portion of a society’s economy that is subject to official systems of regulation and remuneration; formal sector businesses provide regular wage or salaried employment, and are subject to taxation by various levels of government; the formal sector dominates Phase Four societies.
Freedoms of the air eight privileges, put in place through bilateral agreements, that govern the global airline industry.
Frontstage explicitly or tacitly recognised spaces within the destination that are mobilised for tourism purposes such as commodified cultural performances.
Functional adaptation the use of a structure for a purpose other than its original intent, represented in tourism by canals used by pleasure boaters and old homes converted into bed and breakfasts.
Gender segmentation the grouping of individuals into male and female categories, or according to sexual orientation.
Generation Y also known as Gen Y or the Millennials; the population cohort following Generation X that was born between the early 1980s and early 2000s.
Geographic segmentation market segmentation carried out on the basis of the market’s origin region; can be carried out at various scales, including region (e.g. Asia), country (Germany), subnational unit (California, Queensland), or urban/rural.
Geopolitical sustainability the viability of countries and of relationships between countries; in tourism this can be facilitated by constructive bilateral tourist movements.
GIS (geographic information systems) sophisticated computer software programs that facilitate the assembly, storage, manipulation, analysis and display of spatially referenced information.
Global inequality in tourism a fundamental distinction pertaining to the relative spatial distribution of tourism at a global level.
Globalisation the process whereby the operation of businesses and the movement of capital is increasingly less impeded by national boundaries, and is reflected in a general trend towards industry consolidation, deregulation and privatisation.
Golden Weeks two one-week periods of annual holiday in China, focused around Chinese New Year and National Day, and characterised by extremely intensive domestic travel.
Golfscapes cultural landscapes that are dominated by golf courses and affiliated developments.
Grand Tour a form of early modern tourism that involved a lengthy trip to the major cities of France and Italy by young adults of the leisure class, for purposes of education and culture.
Green consumerism the proclivity to purchase goods and services that are deemed to be environmentally and socially sustainable; situates along a spectrum from ‘true’ green to ‘veneer’ green attitudes and behaviour.
Green paradigm an emerging ecocentric worldview that is challenging the basic assumptions of the dominant Western environmental paradigm and accounting for its related anomalies and contradictions.
Green traveller an emerging market niche that is highly discerning and critical in ensuring that its travel behaviour does not negatively affect destinations; similar to Plog’s allocentric tourist.
Greenwashing the process of conveying an impression of environmental responsibility that is not actually deserved; often associated with the misuse of terms such as ‘sustainable tourism’ and ‘ecotourism’.
Grey nomads older adults who spend a substantial portion of their time during their retirement travelling in caravans to various recreational destinations.
Gross national happiness (GNH) an index used officially by the government of Bhutan to measure development, based on principles of equity, environmental sustainability, cultural preservation and good governance.
Growth pole strategy a strategy that uses tourism to stimulate economic development in a suitably located area (or growth pole), so that this growth will eventually become self-sustaining.
Hard ecotourism a form of ecotourism that stresses an intensive, specialised and prolonged interaction with nature in a relatively undisturbed natural environment with few available amenities; a form of alternative tourism.
Hierarchical diffusion spread occurs through an urban or other hierarchy, usually from the largest to the smallest centres, independent of where these centres are located.
Horizontal integration occurs when firms attain a higher level of consolidation or control within their own sector.
Hotels the most conventional type of tourist accommodation; can be subcategorised into city, convention, airport, resort and apartment hotels, and motels.
Human responses the reactions of individuals, communities, the tourism industry, tourists, NGOs and governments to the various environmental responses.
Hyperdestinations destinations where the annual intake of visitors dramatically outnumbers the permanent resident population; often characteristic of tourist shopping villages.
Hypotheses tentative informed statements about the nature of reality that can be subsequently verified or rejected through systematic deductive research.
Iconic attraction an attraction that is well-known and closely associated with a particular destination, such as Mt Fuji (Japan) or the Statue of Liberty (United States).
Ideal type an idealised model of some phenomenon or process against which real-life situations can be measured and compared.
Image in tourism, the sum of the beliefs, attitudes and impressions that individuals or groups hold towards tourist destinations or aspects of destinations. Destination image is a critical factor in attracting or repelling visitors.
Inbound tour operators tour operators that coordinate and manage the component of the package tour within the destination, in cooperation with a partner outbound tour operator.
Inbound tourists international tourists arriving from another country.
Incremental access a policy, practised most notably in China, whereby new destinations within a country are gradually opened up to international (and possibly domestic) tourists.
Indicators variables or parameters that provide information about some phenomenon in order to facilitate its management in a desirable way.
Indigenous theories theories that arise out of a particular field of study or discipline.
Indirect financial costs costs that do not entail a direct outlay of funds, but indicate lost revenue.
Indirect impacts revenues that are used by tourism businesses and their suppliers to purchase goods and services.
Indirect revenues revenue obtained through the circulation of direct tourist expenditures within a destination.
Induced impacts revenue circulation that results from the use of wages in tourism businesses and their suppliers to purchase goods and services.
Induction an approach in basic research whereby the observation and analysis of data leads to the formulation of theories or models that link these observations in a meaningful way.
Industrial Revolution a process that occurred in England from the mid-1700s to the mid-1900s (and spread outwards to other countries), in which society was transformed from an agrarian to an industrial base, thereby spawning conditions that were conducive to the growth of tourism-related activity.
Informal sector the portion of a society’s economy that is external to the official systems of regulation and remuneration; dominant in many parts of the less developed world, informal sector businesses are characterised by small size, the absence of regular working hours or wage payments, family ownership and a lack of any regulating quality control.
Inseparability a characteristic of services marketing, where production and consumption of tourist services occur at the same time and place and are thus inseparable.
Intangibility a characteristic of services marketing, where the actual tourism service cannot be seen, touched or tried before its purchase and consumption.
Interdisciplinary approach involves the input of a variety of disciplines, with fusion and synthesis occurring among these different perspectives.
Internal-intentional actions deliberate actions that originate from within the destination itself; the best case scenario for destinations in terms of control and management.
Internal-unintentional actions actions that originate from within the destination, but are not deliberate.
International excursionists tourists who stay less than one night in another country.
International stayovers tourists who stay at least one night in another country.
International tourism receipts all consumption expenditure, or payments for goods and services, made by international tourists (stayovers and excursionists) to use themselves or to give away.
International tourist a tourist who travels beyond their usual country of residence.
Intervening opportunities places, often within transit regions, that develop as tourist destinations in their own right and subsequently have the potential to divert tourists from previously patronised destinations.
Involvement the second stage in the Butler sequence, where the local community responds to the opportunities created by tourism by offering specialised services; associated with a gradual increase in visitor numbers.
Knowledge-based platform the most recent dominant perspective in tourism studies, arising from the sustainability discourse and emphasising ideological neutrality and the application of rigorous scientific methods to generate knowledge so that communities can decide whether large-or small-scale tourism is most appropriate.
Last chance tourism tourism activity and phenomena associated with people who want to visit a destination before the attraction disappears; associated with the loss of habitat, especially in coastal areas, due to climate change.
Leisure class in premodern tourism, that small portion of the population that had sufficient discretionary time and income to engage in leisure pursuits such as tourism.
Literary tourism any kind of tourism that is focused on a particular author, group of authors, or literary school; commonly regarded as a type of cultural tourism.
Literary village a small settlement, usually rural, where tourism development is focused on some element of literary tourism.
Long-haul tourists variably defined as tourists taking trips outside of the world region where they reside, or beyond a given number of flying time hours.
Longitudinal research a trends-oriented approach to research, which examines one or more sites at two or more points in time or, more rarely, on a continuous basis.
Low-cost carriers airlines that compete with traditional carriers by offering substantially lower fares but also a ‘bare bones’ selection of services; usually associated with short-haul routes and internet bookings.
Loyalty the extent to which a product, such as a destination, is perceived in a positive way and repeatedly purchased by the consumer.
Market failure the failure of market forces to produce a longer-term equilibrium in supply and demand, such as when individual businesses in the tourism industry are unwilling to provide the funds for destination promotion (to increase demand) because such investment will provide benefits to their competitors as well as to themselves.
Market segmentation the division of the tourist market into more or less homogenous subgroups, or tourist market segments, based on certain common characteristics and/or behavioural patterns.
Market segments portions of the tourist market that are more or less distinct in their characteristics and/or behaviour.
Marketing the interactions and interrelationships that occur among consumers and producers of goods and services, through which ideas, products, services and values are created and exchanged for the mutual benefit of both groups.
Marketing mix the critical components that determine the demand for a business or destination product.
Markets of one an extreme form of market segmentation, in which individual consumers are recognised as distinct market segments.
Matrix model of cycle trigger factors an eight-cell model that classifies the various actions that induce change in the evolution of tourism in a destination. Each of the following categories can be further divided into tourism stimulants and depressants.
Medical tourism travel for the purpose of obtaining medical treatment that is unavailable or too expensive in the participant’s region of origin.
Mesopotamia the region approximately occupied by present-day Iraq, where the earliest impulses of civilisation first emerged, presumably along with the first tourism activity.
MICE an acronym combining meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions; a form of tourism largely associated with business purposes.
Midcentrics ‘average’ tourists whose personality type is a compromise between allocentric and psychocentric traits.
Middle Ages the period from about AD 1100 to the Renaissance (about AD 1500), characterised by an improvement in the social, economic and political situation, in comparison with the Dark Ages.
Modern mass tourism (Contemporary tourism) the period from 1950 to the present day, characterised by the rapid expansion of international and domestic tourism.
Motivation the intrinsic reasons why the individual is embarking on a particular trip.
Multidisciplinary approach involves the input of a variety of disciplines, but without any significant interaction or synthesis of these different perspectives.
Multilevel segmentation a refinement of simple market segmentation that further differentiates basic level segments.
Multiplier effect a measure of the subsequent income generated in a destination’s economy by direct tourist expenditure.
Multipurpose travel travel undertaken for more than a single purpose.
Natural events attractions that occur over a fixed period of time in one or more locations, and are more natural than constructed.
Natural sites geographically fixed attractions that are more natural than constructed; these can be subdivided into topography (physical features), climate, hydrology (water resources), wildlife, vegetation and location.
Netnography a type of ethnographic research that analyses the voices that are voluntarily expressed through internet-based social media.
Niche markets highly specialised market segments.
North–south flow a common term used to describe the dominant pattern of international tourist traffic from the advanced economies (located mainly in the northern latitudes, except for Australia and New Zealand) to the emerging economies (located mainly to the south of the advanced economies).
Olympic Games the most important of the ancient Greek art and athletics festivals, held every four years at Olympia. The ancient Olympic Games are one of the most important examples of premodern tourism.
Opportunity cost the idea that the use of a resource for some activity (e.g. tourism) precludes its use for some other activity that may yield a better financial return (e.g. agriculture).
Origin community the residents of the origin region.
Origin government the government of the origin region.
Origin region the region (e.g. country, state, city) from which the tourist originates, also referred to as the market or generating region.
Outbound tour operators tour operators based in origin regions that organise and market volume-driven package tours that include transportation, accommodation, visits to attractions and other items of interest to tourists.
Outbound tourists international tourists departing from their usual country of residence.
Package tour a pre-paid travel package that usually includes transportation, accommodation, food and other services.
Paradigm the entire constellation of beliefs, assumptions and values that underlie the way that a society interprets the nature of reality.
Paradigm nudge the opportunistic adaptation of an existing dominant paradigm to changing conditions; evident in the selective adoption of ‘green’ practices within the conventional tourism industry.
Paradigm shift the replacement of one paradigm with another when the formerly dominant paradigm can no longer adequately account for various contradictions and anomalies.
Paradox of resentment the idea that problems of resentment and tension can result whether tourists are integrated with, or isolated from, the local community.
Perishability a services marketing characteristic; because production and consumption are simultaneous, services cannot be produced and stored in advance for future consumption (e.g. empty aircraft seats are a permanent loss that cannot be recouped).
Pilgrimage generic term for travel undertaken for religious purpose. Pilgrimages have declined in importance during the modern era compared with recreational, business and social tourism.
Pink dollar the purchasing power of gay and lesbian consumers, recognised to be much higher than the average purchasing power (sometimes used to describe the purchasing power of women).
‘Play in order to work’ philosophy an industrial-era ethic, which holds that leisure time and activities are necessary in order to make workers more productive, thereby reinforcing the work-focused nature of society.
Pleasure periphery those less economically developed regions of the globe that are being increasingly mobilised to provide 3S and alpine tourism products.
Political accessibility the extent to which visitors are allowed entry into a destination by a governing authority.
Post-Cook period the time from about 1880 to 1950, characterised by the rapid growth of domestic tourism within the wealthier countries, but less rapid expansion in international tourism.
Postdisciplinary approach advocates moving beyond the theoretical and methodological constraints of specific disciplines so that tourism studies are free to address critical issues in the most appropriate ways.
Premodern tourism describes the era of tourism activity from the beginning of civilisation to the end of the Middle Ages.
Primary research research that involves the collection of original data by the researcher.
Problem recognition the first stage of the research process, which is the identification of a broad problem arena that requires investigation.
Propulsive activity an economic activity that is suited to a particular area and thus facilitates the growth pole strategy; in the case of Cancún and other subtropical or tropical coastal regions 3S tourism is an effective propulsive activity.
Psychocentrics ‘self-centred’ tourists who prefer familiar and risk-averse experiences.
Psychographic segmentation the differentiation of the tourist market on the basis of psychological and motivational characteristics such as personality, motivations and needs.
Pull factors that help to stimulate a tourism product by ‘pulling’ consumers towards particular destinations.
Push factors economic, social, demographic, technological and political forces that stimulate a demand for tourism activity by ‘pushing’ consumers away from their usual place of residence.
Qualitative research research that does not place its emphasis on the collection and analysis of statistical data, and usually tends to obtain in-depth insight into a relatively small number of respondents or observations.
Quality control mechanisms (quality assurance mechanisms) mechanisms that provide some degree of assurance to consumers, government or others that a particular operation, product or destination follows standards associated with sustainable tourism.
Quantitative research research that is based mainly on the collection and analysis of statistical data, and hence tends to obtain a limited amount of information on a large number of respondents or observations; these results are then extrapolated to the wider population of the subject matter.
Question formulation the posing of specific questions or hypotheses that serve to focus the research agenda arising from problem recognition; these questions can be descriptive, explanatory, predictive or prescriptive in nature.
Refereed academic journals publications that are considered to showcase a discipline by merit of the fact that they are subject to a rigorous process of double-blind peer review.
Rejuvenation the scenario of a renewed development-like growth that occurs if steps are taken to revitalise the tourism product offered by the destination.
Renaissance the ‘rebirth’ of Europe following the Dark Ages, commencing in Italy during the mid-1400s and spreading to Germany and the ‘low countries’ by the early 1600s.
Research a systematic search for knowledge.
Research methodology a set of assumptions, procedures and methods that are used to carry out a search for knowledge within a particular type of research.
Research methods the techniques that will be used to answer the questions or prove or disprove the hypotheses.
Research process the sequence of stages that are followed to carry out a research project from its origins to its conclusions.
Resilience a system’s capacity to maintain and adjust its essential structure and functions in the face of a disturbance, especially with regard to major natural and human-induced disasters; its particular relevance to tourism derives from the industry’s presence in vulnerable settings such as coastlines and mountains.
Resorts facilities or urban areas that are specialised in the provision of recreational tourism opportunities.
Revenue leakages a major category of indirect financial costs, entailing erosion in the multiplier effect due to the importation of goods and services that are required by tourists or the tourist industry, through factor payments abroad such as repatriated profits, and through imports required for government expenditure on tourism-related infrastructure such as airports, road and port equipment.
RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification) miniature devices that allow tracking of a good or person; tourism applications include tracking of travellers and their expenditures.
Rifle marketing a mode of promotional advertising that is aimed just at the target market.
Roots tourism when persons of a particular ethnic group travel to their ancestral ethnic homeland as cultural or heritage tourists; also called ‘genealogy tourism’.
Scientific paradigm the currently dominant paradigm, which holds that reality is reducible and deterministic and can be understood through the application of the ‘scientific method’.
Seaside resorts a type of resort located on coastlines to take advantage of sea bathing for health and, later, recreational purposes; many of these were established during the Industrial Revolution for both the leisure and working classes.
Secondary (or ‘flow-on’) impacts the indirect and induced stages of money circulation in the multiplier effect that follows the actual tourist expenditure.
Secondary research research in which the investigator uses previously collected data.
Secular pilgrimage travel for spiritual purposes that are not linked to conventional religions.
Sense of place the combination of natural and cultural characteristics that makes a destination unique in comparison to any other destination, and thus potentially provides it with a competitive advantage.
Services marketing the marketing of services such as those associated with the tourism industry, as opposed to the marketing of the goods industry.
Short-haul tourists variably defined as tourists taking trips within the world region where they reside, or within a given number of flying time hours.
Shotgun marketing a mode of promotional advertising where the message is disseminated to a broad audience on the assumption that this saturation will reach target markets and perhaps attract new recruits.
Simple market segmentation the most basic form of market segmentation, involving the identification of a minimal number of basic market segments such as ‘female’ and ‘male’.
Site hardening increasing the visitor carrying capacity of a site through structural and other changes that allow more visitors to be accommodated.
Slow tourism small-scale tourism that focuses on deep interaction with the authentic local culture of the destination; proposed as a more appropriate alternative to the fast-paced, homogenised, pleasure-seeking character of mass tourism.
Small island states or dependencies (SISODs) geopolitical entities with a population of less than three million permanent residents and a land mass of less than 28 000 km2. SISODs are overrepresented as tourist destinations because of their ample 3S tourism resources.
Snowbirds individuals, usually from cooler climates, who spend a substantial portion of the winter in warmer climate destinations, often forming enclaves with other people from the same country or region.
Social exchange theory the idea that support for tourism is based on each individual’s assessment of the personal and societal costs and benefits that result from this activity.
Social representations theory the tendency of individuals to make sense of the world around them through the shared meanings conveyed by the media, social reference groups, and personal experience.
Social tourism tourism that enables socially disadvantaged groups such as the poor, young, old, unemployed and those with a physical or intellectual disability to participate in holiday travel as a basic human right.
Sociodemographic segmentation market segmentation based on social and demographic variables such as gender, age, family lifecycle, education, occupation and income.
Soft ecotourism a form of ecotourism that emphasises a short-term interaction with nature as part of a multipurpose trip with ample provision for services and facilities; can exist as a form of mass tourism.
Soft power the projection of influence and power through subtle means such as foreign aid and cultural exports, in contrast to hard power such as military bases.
Space tourism an emerging form of tourism that involves travel by and confinement within aircraft or spacecraft to high altitude locations where suborbital effects such as zero-gravity or earth curvature viewing can be experienced.
Spas a type of resort centred on the use of geothermal waters for health purposes.
Spatial diffusion the process whereby some innovation or idea spreads from a point of origin to other locations; this model is more appropriate than the destination cycle to describe the development of tourism at the country level.
Stagnation the stage in the Butler sequence wherein visitor numbers and tourism growth stagnate due to the deterioration of the product.
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) a system that uses standard alphanumeric codes to classify all types of economic activity. Tourism-related activities are distributed among at least 15 codes.
Stayover a tourist who spends at least one night in a destination region.
Stockpiler an employee who accumulates excessive leave time, thereby contributing to the financial liability of employers and underperformance of domestic tourism; estimated to account for about one-quarter of the Australian workforce.
Stopovers travellers who stop in a location in transit to another destination; they normally do not clear customs and are not considered tourists from the transit location’s perspective.
Strategic marketing marketing that takes into consideration an extensive analysis of external and internal environmental factors in identifying strategies that attain specific goals.
Stressor activities activities that initiate the environmental impact sequence; these can be divided into permanent environmental restructuring, the generation of waste residuals, tourist activities and indirect and induced activities.
Strong sustainable development an approach to sustainable development that assumes relatively rigorous environmental expectations in recognition of areas, such as wilderness, that are relatively undisturbed and have a low carrying capacity.
Structural accessibility the extent to which a destination is physically accessible to markets by air routes, highways, ferry links etc., and through entry/exit facilities such as seaports and airports.
Subnational inequality the tendency of tourism within countries, states and individual cities to be spatially concentrated.
Sunbelt the name frequently applied to the 3S-oriented American portion of the pleasure periphery. Well-known destinations within the sunbelt include Hawaii, southern California, Las Vegas (Nevada), Arizona, Texas and Florida.
Sustainable development in principle, development that meets the needs of present generations while ensuring that future generations are able to meet their own needs.
Sustainable tourism tourism that is developed in such a way so as to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
SWOT analysis an analysis of a company or destination’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that emerges from an examination of its internal and external environment.
System a group of interrelated, interdependent and interacting elements that together form a single functional structure.
Theory a model or statement that describes, explains or predicts some phenomenon.
Thomas Cook the entrepreneur whose company Thomas Cook & Son applied the principles of the Industrial Revolution to the tourism sector through such innovations as the package tour.
Threshold a critical value of indicator sustainability; when the threshold is exceeded, this indicates an unsustainable situation.
Timesharing an accommodation option in which a user purchases one or more intervals (or weeks) per year in a resort, usually over a long period of time.
Tour operators businesses providing a package of tourism-related services for the consumer, including some combination of accommodation, transportation, restaurants and attraction visits.
Tourism the sum of the processes, activities, and outcomes arising from the relationships and the interactions among tourists, tourism suppliers, host 414governments, host communities, and surrounding environments that are involved in the attracting, transporting, hosting and management of tourists and other visitors.
Tourism industries a term recommended by some over ‘tourism industry’, to reflect the distribution of tourism activity across a broad array of sectors.
Tourism industry the sum of the industrial and commercial activities that produce goods and services wholly or mainly for tourist consumption. (pp. 40, 118)
Tourism participation sequence according to Burton, the tendency for a society to participate in tourism increases through a set of four phases that relate to the concurrent process of increased economic development.
Tourism platforms perspectives that have dominated the emerging field of tourism studies at various stages of its evolution; they are both sequential and cumulative.
Tourism product consists of tourist attractions and the tourism industry.
Tourism resources features of a destination that are valued as attractions by tourists at some particular point in time; a feature that was a tourism resource 100 years ago may not be perceived as such now.
Tourist a person who travels temporarily outside of his or her usual environment (usually defined by some distance threshold) for certain qualifying purposes.
Tourist attractions specific and generic features of a destination that attract tourists; some, but not all, attractions are part of the tourism industry.
Tourist bubble the alleged tendency of some package tourists to travel in a way that keeps them sheltered from the destination and close to the culturally familiar elements of their home culture; it is a concept that is associated with high leakage effects.
Tourist–historic city an urban place where the preservation of historical districts helps to sustain and is at least in part sustained by a significant level of tourist activity.
Tourist market the overall group of consumers that engages in some form of tourism-related travel.
Tourist shopping villages small towns where the downtown is dominated by tourism-related businesses such as boutiques, antique shops and cafés; they are also usually hyperdestinations.
Transit region the places and regions that tourists pass through as they travel from origin to destination region.
Transportation businesses involved in conveying tourists by air, road, rail or water.
Travel agencies businesses providing retail travel services to customers for commission on behalf of other tourism industry sectors.
Travel purpose the reason why people travel; in tourism, these involve recreation and leisure, visits to friends and relatives (VFR), business, and less dominant purposes such as study, sport, religion and health.
Triangulation the use of multiple methods, data sources, investigators or theories in a single research process.
Triple bottom line the principle in sustainable development and sustainable tourism that environmental, sociocultural and economic dimensions of sustainability must be taken concurrently into account in planning and management.
Ubiquitous attractions attractions that can be established almost anywhere and are usually specialised recreational facilities (e.g. golf courses, theme parks).
Urban–rural fringe (or exurbs) a transitional zone surrounding larger urban areas that combines urban and rural characteristics and benefits from proximity to each.
Variability a services marketing characteristic, where service encounters, even if they involve a similar kind of experience, are highly variable due to the differences and rapid changes in mood, expectation and other human element factors that affect the participants.
Variable costs costs that can be readily reduced in the short term, such as salaries of casual staff.
Vertical integration occurs when a corporation obtains greater control over elements of the product chain outside its own sector.
VFR tourism tourism based on visits to friends and relatives.
Virtual reality (VR) the wide-field presentation of computer-generated, multisensory information that allows the user to experience a virtual world.
Volunteer tourism a form of tourism involving extended visits to places where the volunteers assist with designated aid or research projects.
Weak sustainable development an approach to sustainable development that assumes relatively relaxed environmental expectations in recognition of areas, such as intensively developed beach resorts, that are already extensively modified and have high carrying capacities.
Webcasting the delivery of interactive multimedia to customers through the internet on either an ‘on demand’ or ‘real-time’ basis.
Winescapes a cultural landscape significantly influenced by the presence of vineyards, wineries and other features associated with viticulture and wine production; an essential element of wine-focused culinary tourism.
‘Work in order to play’ philosophy a post-industrial ethic derived from ancient Greek philosophy that holds that leisure and leisure-time activities such as tourism are important in their own right and that we work to be able to afford to engage in leisure pursuits.
Zero-commission tours package tour arrangements in which no commissions are paid and profits are realised through aggressive and captive sales strategies; often associated with Chinese outbound tourism.