Index
abstract images, 123
action plans, 164–171
actions, making obvious, 165–166
as active process, 164
analogies for, 165
analysis, 164
chunks, 166–167
complexity concerns, 166
composition, 164
concept, 164
corresponding to real-world tasks, 165
decomposing, 167
defined, 164
direct-manipulation interface and, 165
effects of, 165
emerging interaction paradigms and, 339
executing, 171–178
flexibility, 168–171
gestural phrases, 172
internal/external consistency and, 167
interruption/resumption, 170
simplifying, 166–168
action sequences
executing, 171–178
planning, 164–171
user interface controls and, 167
actions
making obvious, 165–166
reversibility of, 175–176
stages of, 160
activities
automation, 89
communication, 46
context, emphasis, 84
costs, 346
of health care center, 42
multithreaded, 168
simulating, 54
stakeholder, 48
workplace, 39
activity design, 79–108
case study, 91–106
claims analyzing features of, 100–101
components, 91
comprehensible, 84–88
exercises, 107
general-purpose solutions, 84
goal, 79
ideas suggested by MOOsburg tools, 94
ideas traced to metaphors, 95
process, 81–84
project ideas, 107–108
refining, 101–104
in scenario-based design, 91
scope of, 106
space, 92–94
summary, 106–107
tradeoffs, 84
See also design
activity scenarios, 26–27
claims analysis of, 142
claims generated in parallel with, 99
elaborating with information design
details, 143–144
envisionment of, 107
generating new, 252
science fair case study, 97–99
shared work and, 90
actors, reuse of, 72
affordances
defined, 124
as display element features, 124
dynamic, 125
in interactive systems, 124
interpretation and, 124
irrelevant, 124–125
recognizing, 124–125
summary, 156
air traffic control ethnographic study, 44–45
analytic evaluation
hazard, 232
repeated, 231
in SBD, 248
analytic methods, 232–238
claims analysis, 232
defined, 229
examples, 230
model-based analysis, 235–238
motivation for, 232
summary, 269
usability inspection, 233–235
weaknesses, 229
See also usability evaluation
anthropomorphism, 102
articulation work, 308
articulatory directness, 171
artifact analysis, 58–61
artifacts
analyzing, 41
defined, 40
example illustration, 41
features, 40
meaning of, 41
reuse of, 72
summary, 76
types of, 58
of workplace, 39
assistance policy, 262
asynchronous collaboration, 307
defined, 307
MUDs, 308
See also collaboration
augmented reality, 315
baselines, 240
behavioral statistics resources, 365
benchmark tasks, 241
between-subjects design, 246
bound reference manual, 273
breakdown, 240
Brooks, Fred, 6
buttons, 163
case studies
activity design, 91–106
documentation design, 292–300
information design, 137–155
interaction design, 178–192
interaction paradigms, 329–338
product development, 348
prototyping, 209–223
requirements analysis, 48–76
usability engineering, 29–33
usability evaluation, 247–271
categorical data, 365
categorical variables, 263
CAVE (Collaborative Automatic Virtual
Environment), 326
change scores, 266
chauffered prototypes, 207
chunks
defined, 166
defining, 166–167
claims
defined, 72
design reasoning and, 72
extending, 74
for feature identification, 94–95
features, 74
features proposed during detailed
information design, 152
information, 147–149
information design, 147–149
interaction design, 186–188
issues for future design work, 99
as requirements, 75–76
summary, 76
tradeoffs and, 75
user documentation, 298–300
claims analysis
of activity design scenarios, 142
as analytic method, 232
collaboration-oriented, 332
defined, 72
example, 73–74
intelligent system scenario and, 336
of key features of activity design, 100–101
prototyping and, 204
roles, 72
of science fair interaction, 186–187
tradeoffs and, 72
ubiquitous computing and, 333
virtual reality (VR) and, 337
cognitive walk-through, 234
coherence, 105
concerns, 106
improvement, 105
collaboration, 306–313
anonymity and, 311
articulation work, 308
asynchronous, 307
for judging activity, 331
in science fair case study, 330–332
synchronous, 306–307
tradeoff, 23
Virtual School project, 310
work setting, 202
See also interaction paradigms
collaborators, supporting awareness of, 309,
color, 116–117
command language, 162
common ground, 318
completeness, 105–106
computer-based displays, 131–132
computer-supported cooperative work
(CSCW), 14
computing
changing scope of, 353–355
digital divide and, 355–356
mandatory nature of, 155
mobile, 313
for seniors, 357–358
ubiquitous, 313–317
consistency, 127–128
balance, 128
tradeoff, 127
content analysis, 239
context aware devices, 315
contextual design, 29
contextual inquiry, 46
controlled experiments, 244–247
cooperative design, 82–83
defined, 82
as lifecycle approach, 82–83
process, 82
See also participatory design
cost-benefit analysis, 345
example, 348
tradeoffs, 345
costs
estimating, 345
justifying usability, 345–349
per activity, 346
reductions, 348
savings, 348
tradeoffs, 345
types of, 346
unexpected, 358
variation, 346
critical incidents, 240
critical subtasks, 250
cues
color, 116–117
interpersonal communication, 311
multiple contrasting, 116
nonverbal communication, 308
redundant coding of, 114
structural, 117
data
categorical, 365
collection form, 260
distributions, 364–365
debriefing, 263
demonstrations, 280–281
defined, 280
disadvantages, 280
problems, 281
See also user documentation
dependent variables, 245
design
between-subjects, 246
brainstorming, 87
coherence, 105
completeness, 105–106
consistency, 127–128
contextual, 29
cooperative, 82–83
documents, 83
for errors, 168–169
goal of, 83
implicit goal of, 83
information, 109–157
metaphors, 87
mixed, 246
project success, 24
rationale, 7
reasoning, 79
responsibility-driven, 102
SBD, 26–27
substages, 26–27
system functionality, 81
in usage context, 81
user experience and, 80
within-subjects, 246
design review meetings, 24
design scenarios, 2–3
VSF, subtask analysis, 250
walk-through, 249
designer’s model, 85–86
as abstract network, 85–86
documenting/sharing, 86
user’s mental model vs., 85
development teams. See teams
dialog boxes, 115–116
dialog design. See interaction design
digital divide, 355–356
addressing, 356
defined, 356
direct manipulation, 161–162
action planning and, 165
command language, 162
defined, 161
summary, 193
visual representation of objects, 162
directional pointing, 173
directness, 171–174
disabled users, 357
distributed cognition, 83
distributed interaction technology, 317
documentation. See user documentation
documentation design
case study, 292–300
guidelines, 276
metaphors used to explore, 294
MOOsburg and, 294
problems, 273–274
refining, 300
scenario-based, 293
space, 292–295
as specialized design problem, 292
themes, 276
traditional, 276
See also user documentation
documentation scenarios, 295–298
dynamic affordances, 125
dynamic displays, 131–137
fish-eye view, 132
techniques, 136
dynamic environments, 209
dynamic Web pages, 214
effectiveness, 81–84
designing for, 84
efficiency vs., 81
efficiency, 81
effectiveness vs., 81
hierarchies, 130
elderly users, 357–358
accommodations, 357–358
as major demographic segment, 357
performance of, 358
speech recognition for, 358
See also special needs
electronic brainstorming, 307
emerging interaction paradigms. See
interaction paradigms
empirical methods, 238–247
complexity, 238
concerns, 269
controlled experiments, 244–247
defined, 229
examples, 230
field studies, 238–241
usability testing in laboratory, 241–244
uses, 229
See also usability evaluation
error management, 275
errors
designing for, 168–169
execution, 175
true, 193
ethics, 352–359
ethnography, 41–43
of British air traffic control rooms, 44
defined, 41–42
full study, 42–43
HCI and, 42–43
“quick-and-dirty,” 43
evaluation, 27–28
guide, 28
heuristic, 29
summative, 27–28
evolutionary development, 207–209
constant iteration/change and, 209
defined, 207
feedback in, 208
MOOsburg as enabler, 222
popularity, 208
process, 207
science fair case study, 221–223
summary, 224
use of, 207–208
execution errors, 175
explicit usability objectives, 20
action planning and, 167
defined, 128
See also consistency
familiarity, 119–122
consistency balance, 128
summary, 156
feedback, 174–175
defined, 174
designing, 175
in evolutionary development, 208
immediate and continuing, 174
need for, 174
questions used to raise concerns, 190
usability inspections and, 234
user, collection of, 205
virtual reality (VR), 328
field data, 48–49
artifact analysis, 58–61
collection, 54
stakeholder, 54–56
summarizing, 54–64
task analysis, 56–58
types of, 54
workplace themes, 61–64
field studies, 238–241
comprehensive, 239
of current practices, 51
data, 48–49
data collection, 54
defined, 48
longitudinal studies, 239
observation severity, 240
preparing for, 51–53
summary, 76
validity and, 239
See also empirical methods
fish-eye view, 132
Fitt’s Law, 175
floor control, 307
focus+context visualizations, 132
decomposition, 346
defined, 228
parallel development support, 238
summary, 269
usability specifications for, 248
See also summative evaluation
frequently asked questions (FAQs), 273,
functions
as part of problem, 22
unneeded, 22
Gestalt principles, 113–114
defined, 113
direct attention, 114
impact of, 116
list of, 113
summary, 155
user interface design and, 114
globalization, 349
glyphs, 316
GOMS, 12
defined, 235
detailed, 236
See also model-based analysis
grammars, 237
graphical user interface (GUI), 176–177
grid-based design, 118
GUI Bloopers, 120–121
Gulf of Evaluation, 110
summary, 193
three stages of, 161
defined, 233
independent, 234
scenarios as basis for, 234
VSF usability problems identified through,
hierarchical analysis, 57
of exhibit construction, 59
of exhibit judging, 60
hierarchical decomposition, 131
hierarchical task analysis (HTA)
defined, 39
documents, 40
illustrated, 39
strength of, 39
See also task analysis
hierarchies
breadth and depth tradeoff, 131
defined, 130
efficiency, 130
examples, 130
power of, 130
problems, 131–132
site map, 130
See also information models
hierarchy visualization, 133
horizontal prototypes, 207
HTML prototypes, 214
human performance, 9–11
optimization, 11
specification and testing, 11
studies, 11
human-computer interaction (HCI), 11–13
defined, 12
design impact, 12
early projects, 12
ethnography and, 42–43
Gulf of Execution, 110
hyperbolic browser, 133
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), 214
hypotheses, 245
hypothesis testing, 245
hypothetical stakeholders, 66–67
defined, 66
science fair case study, 66–67
See also stakeholders
immersive environments, 328
incident reports, 355
inferential statistics, 363–372
information design, 109–157
abstract imagery, 122
activity scenario details, 143–144
by graphical design specialists, 110
case study, 137–155
coherence, 155
consistency, 155
content, 109
defined, 109
detailed, 150–153
with dialog boxes, 115–116
exercises, 156
goal, 137
grids for, 118
information perception and, 111–118
interaction design vs., 178
participatory, 154–155
pitfalls, 109
project ideas, 157
pros/cons, 137
space, exploring, 138–141
summary, 155–156
tradeoffs, 147
user help in developing/refining, 154
See also design
information display
consistency, 127–128
dynamic, 126
familiarity, 119–122
interpretation, 119–125
making sense of, 125–137
perceiving, 119
realism and refinement, 122–123
information layering, 285
information models, 130–131
complex, 131
defined, 130
hierarchy, 130
summary, 156
details, 147
developing, 138
refining, 149–155
science fair case study, 147
See also scenarios
information visualization
defined, 131
success of, 136
inheritance, 104
inquiry method, 75
intelligent tutoring systems, 290
intelligent user interfaces, 317–326
claims analysis and, 336
defined, 317
multimodal, 319–321
natural language and, 318–319
in science fair, 334–336
usability issue, 323
See also interaction paradigms; user
interface(s)
action plan, 164–171
action scope, 160
action sequences, 164–178
case study, 178–192
chunking and, 166
constraints and, 182
defined, 159
exercises, 193–194
feedback, 174–175
focus, 160
goal of, 159
Gulf of Execution and, 160
ideas suggested by MOOsburg tools, 181
information design vs., 178
metaphors, 180
performance optimization, 176–178
project ideas, 194
refining, 338
in scenario-based development, 179
space, 179–182
summary, 192–193
tradeoffs, 188
undo, 175–176
See also design
interaction modes, 170
interaction paradigms, 303–340
action planning and, 339
case study, 329–338
change benefits from, 304–305
as combination of metaphor and
technology, 329
exercises, 339
influence, 306
intelligent user interfaces, 317–326,
opportunities raised by, 306
project ideas, 340
simulation, 326–329
summary, 338–339
ubiquitous computing, 313–317,
interaction scenarios, 178
describing coaching activity, 183–184
describing visiting activity, 184–185
detailed design, 189
interaction storyboards, 189–192
refining, 188–192
science fair case study, 182–186
See also scenarios
interaction storyboards, 189–192
interactions
increased, 188
multithreaded, 169
natural language, 319
problematic, 168
sketched with storyboards, 191
style, 161–163
Virtual School, 311
interactive tutorials. See tutorials
interference, 168
action planning and, 167
defined, 128
See also consistency
Internet, 358
interpersonal communication cues, 311
interpretation
of abstract images, 123
affordances and, 124
defined, 119
process support, 119
visual language aid, 119
visual vocabulary and, 149
interval variables, 264
interviewing guide, 51
illustrated, 52
preparing, 51
iterative development, 9
iterative refinement, 208
joystick, 173–174
keyboard shortcuts, 177
laboratory studies, 241–244
benchmark tests, 241
focus, 241
simulation, 241
storefront testing, 243
subjective reactions, 244
tested tasks, 242
validity concerns, 242
learn by doing, 275
localization, 351–352
challenge, 352
defined, 352
longitudinal studies, 239
low-fidelity prototyping, 206
Macromedia Director, 215
cast members, 215–216
code development and, 217
movies, 216
prototyping user interfaces in, 216
scenes, 216
stage, 216
Mann-Whitney test, 365
Marissa’s gravity project, 1–5
Mayhew’s usability lifecycle, 28–29
mediated evaluation
defined, 229
usability specifications and, 232
anticipating/supporting, 86
defined, 86
designer model vs., 85
menus, 163
metaphor-based analysis, 237–238
activity design ideas traced to, 95
breakdowns, 88
for central science fair objects, 139
in design, 87
for documentation design, 294
general spatial, 142
high-level, 139
messy desktop, 128
mixed, 92
for model-based analysis, 237
physical science-fair, 139
summary, 106
warehouse and meeting place, 88
Minard’s time-series visualization, 125–126
minimalism, 283
mixed design, 246
mobile computing, 313
model-based analysis, 235–238
analytic methods, 235–238
focus, 236
GOMS analysis, 235–236
metaphors for, 237–238
task-action grammar, 237
user interface metaphors for, 237
modes, 170–171
avoiding, 170–171
defined, 170
examples, 170
MOO, 29
MOOsburg, 29–33
case study materials, 31
defined, 29
distributed client-server system, 221
documentation design and, 294
as evolutionary development enabler, 222
generic system menus, 189
illustrated, 30
interaction design ideas suggested by, 181
Java user interface libraries used by, 189
object-oriented architecture, 222
philosophy behind, 217
user interface support, 222
user navigation, 30
virtual science fair use of, 31–33
MUDs (multiuser domains), 308
multimodal user interfaces, 319–321
defined, 319
example systems, 320
motivation, 320
See also intelligent user interfaces; user
interface(s)
multiple complex windows, 169–170
cost of, 170
defined, 169
property sheets, 170
tiled display, 170
multiple coordinated views, 135
natural language, 318–319
challenges of understanding, 318
inherent ambiguity of, 318
interaction, 319
newsgroups, 288–289
challenges, 288
defined, 288
illustrated example, 289
See also user documentation
nonfunctional requirements
defined, 15
examples, 16
nonverbal communication cues, 308
“off-the-shelf” prototyping, 201
online manuals, 278–280
opportunistic behavior, 163
opportunistic goals, 163–164
ordinal variables, 264
organizational view, 45
organizations
usability in, 342–349
usability specialist employment in, 344
Pad++ system, 134
paper manuals, 276–278
illustrated example, 278
as important delivery medium, 279
information types, 276–277
See also user documentation
paradigms, 303–340
participants
background, 263–264
comments, organization/interpretation,
occupation, 263
recruitment, 254–255
redundant information experiment, 368
think-aloud commentary, 268
See also usability testing
participatory analysis, 46
participatory design, 104
defined, 23
session materials, 154
See also cooperative design
perception, 111–118
distinctions, 116
Gestalt, 113–114
recognizing affordances and, 124–125
user interface and, 114–118
visual vocabulary and, 149
performance data, 264–267
summary, 265
variability, 267
See also usability testing
performance optimization, 176–178
action paths, 178
challenge, 176
defaults and, 177
keyboard shortcuts and, 177
users with special needs and, 178
pilot tests, 263
pluralistic walk-through, 234
pocket PCs, 313
point of views (POVs)
analysis, 102
creating, 102
for exhibit-planning scenario, 103
usability issues, 103–104
pointing devices, 173
portable digital assistants (PDAs), 313
pragmatics, 171–172
defined, 171
pointing devices, 173
problem scenarios, 2
claims analyzed while developing, 73–74
defined, 64
example, 67–70
ideas and concerns, 71
as requirements, 75–76
science fair case study, 64–75
summary, 76
transformation to activity design scenarios,
See also scenarios
production paradox, 274–276
defined, 274
error management, 275
problem understanding and, 275
See also user documentation
project scope, 54
property sheets, 170
prototypes
build options, 198
chauffered, 207
creating, 198–199
defined, 198
discarding, 209
early working system version, 205
evaluating, 198
executing scripted interaction, 204
goals, 198
graphics and animation for, 200
help system, 262
horizontal, 207
HTML, 214
in parallel, 209
presentation context of, 200
in SBD, 209
special-purpose, 203
unacceptable, 208
for usability testing, 204–207
user interface, 198
vertical, 207
alternatives, 217–221
approaches in usability engineering, 199
case study, 209–223
claims analysis and, 204
defined, 8
evolutionary development, 207–209
exercises, 224–225
for exploring user requirements, 198–201
feedback, 8
integration, 8–9
as key element of iterative design, 209
low-fidelity, 206
“off-the-shelf,” 201
options, 207
premature commitment and, 200
problems, 8
project ideas, 225
SBD, 27
scenario mock-ups, 210–212
scenario-based reasoning and, 204
summary, 223–224
technique choice, 200
tools, 213
video, 203
Wizard of Oz, 205–207
proxy servers, 314
qualitative analysis, 267
radar view, 308
random assignment, 246–247
control with, 247
defined, 246
effectiveness, 247
recognition memory, 123
redundant coding, 114
redundant information experiment, 366–372
average time to respond, 370
conclusions, 372
design, 366–368
hypotheses, 367–368
judgments made on satisfaction rating
scales, 371
participants, 368
procedures, 368–369
results and analysis, 369–372
trials, 368
variables, 366–367
reflection, 24
reporting, 263–268
participant background, 263–264
task performance and satisfaction,
verbal protocols and user behavior,
See also usability testing
requirements analysis, 37–78
case study, 48–76
defined, 37
example, 38
mission statement, 37
project ideas, 77
SBD and, 48
scenario-based overview, 48
stakeholders and, 43
summary and review, 76–77
team, 38
time spent on, 54
under waterfall model, 37–38
usability engineers and, 38
user interaction scenarios and, 48
Virtual School, 46–47
requirements development, 344
requirements specifications, 38
resources
justifying, 345
project, 54
responsibility-driven design, 102
retrospective interviews, 240
roomware, 315
root concept
defined, 49
elements of, 49
science fair project, 50
rough prototypes, 200–201
defined, 201
participatory design methods and, 201
summary, 224
See also prototypes; prototyping
safety, 353–355
incident reports and, 355
tradeoffs, 355
usability engineering and, 353
satisfying activities, 88–90
scaffolding, 281
benefits of, 213
building, 213
defined, 212
HTML-based, 215
science fair case study, 212–217
as visual aids, 217
See also prototypes
scenario mock-ups, 210–212
defined, 210
for graphic design illustration, 210
for marketing purposes, 210–212
in participatory design, 211
source scenario for, 212
uses, 210
scenario sets, 72
scenario-based development (SBD)
framework, 24
analysis, 25–26
analytic evaluation, 248
claims analysis and, 72
constant iteration assumption, 101
design, 26–27
evaluation in, 247
example-based learning of, 29–33
illustrated, 25
as inquiry method, 75
other approaches and, 29
prototypes in, 209
prototyping and evaluation, 27–28
requirements analysis and, 48
successive transformation of scenarios in, 25
summary, 34
scenario-based usability engineering,
argument behind, 16
doing, 24–29
motivation of, 1
See also usability engineering
scenarios
analysis and refinement of, 26
core, 347
defined, 2
design, 2–3
engineering process and, 24
as evaluation guide, 28
evocative nature of, 24
flexible character of, 20
for heuristic evaluation, 234
incident reports as, 355
in iterative development, 1
knowledge/experience integration, 23
multiple stakeholders, 71
plot, 18
questions and, 2
as requirements, 75–76
revisions, 20
richness, 20
sharing, 20–21
software implied by, 102
stakeholder diagram as guide for, 71
summary, 33–34
within development team, 23
writing, 64
science fair case study
activity design scenarios and claims,
activity design space, 92–94
activity scenarios, 97–99
analysis of current practice, 51–54
artifact analysis, 58–61
claims analysis, 73–74
claims analyzed during documentation
design, 299
coherence and completeness, 105–106
collaboration, 330–332
collaboration for judging activity, 331
collaboration-oriented claims analysis, 332
data collection form, 260
defined, 49
design activity refinement, 101–104
design elaborations for scenarios, 297–298
detailed information design, 150–153
detailed usability specifications for two
scenario contexts, 251
documentation claims, 298–300
documentation design, 292–300
documentation design space, 292–295
documentation scenarios, 295–298
evolutionary development, 221–223
exhibit illustration, 53
exhibit space alternative prototype, 220
exhibit space prototype, 219
exhibit space sketch, 150
exhibit template, 155
features/reactions to information design,
field data summary, 54–64
hierarchical task analysis of exhibit
construction, 59
hierarchical task analysis of exhibit
judging, 60
hypothetical stakeholders, 66–67
ideas about interaction design, 181
information design, 137–155
information design space, 138–141
information scenario refinement, 149–155
informed consent form, 256
intelligence in, 334–336
interaction design, 178–192
interaction design refinement, 338
interaction design space, 179–182
interaction paradigms, 329–338
as kiosk information system, 292
metaphors with emphasis on interaction
design, 180
observations, interviews, and artifacts,
poster advertisement, 61
POVs for exhibit-planning scenario, 103
problem scenario transformed to activity
scenario, 96
problem scenarios and claims, 64–75
prototyping, 209–223
prototyping alternatives, 217–221
rating form, 62
root concept, 50
Sally’s exhibit on black holes sketch, 151
scenario machines, 212–217
scenario mock-ups, 210–212
scenarios and claims as requirements,
simulating reality, 336–338
sketches, 149
sketches for control icons for exhibits, 153
stakeholder profiles, 54–56
stakeholder relations, 57
starting assumptions, 50
storyboards, 189–192
subtasks analyzed from design scenarios,
task analysis, 56–58
tasks carried out by stakeholders, 58
test material development, 255
test participant recruitment, 254–255
test results, reporting, 263–268
test task satisfaction ratings, 266
ubiquitous computing, 332–334
usability evaluation, 247–271
usability inspection, 248–250
usability specifications development,
usability specifications refinement,
usability specifications testing, 252–268
usability test, conducting, 262–263
user interaction scenarios, 253–254
user reaction survey, 260–262
visit scenario transformed to emphasize
VR, 337
visitor representation, 366–372
“What’s interesting?” agent, 335
work coordination, 330
workplace themes, 61–64
workplace themes summary, 65
self-instruction, 276–280
defined, 276
online manuals, 278–280
paper manuals, 276–278
semantic directness, 161
semantic filtering, 134
seniors. See elderly users
simulation. See virtual reality (VR)
site maps, 130
control icons for exhibits, 153
of overall exhibit space, 150
Sally’s exhibit on black holes, 151
summary, 156
skipping-around problem, 275
Smalltalk, 209
social context
analyzing, 41
defined, 40
of workplace, 39
socially mediated documentation, 287–289
access to knowledgeable colleagues, 288
examples, 288
FAQs, 288
organization, 287
See also user documentation
sociotechnical systems theory, 89
software
complexity, 6
crisis, 5
design phase, 6
implied by scenarios, 102
market evolution, 22
safety, 353–355
defined, 290
developed at MIT Media Lab, 323
disadvantages, 291
illustrated, 291
location, 322
roles played by, 322
source of intelligence, 322
strength of, 291
types of, 322
software development
challenges, 5
defined, 5
managing, 5–9
organization, 5–6
reflection/analysis and, 24
tradeoffs, 7
usability in, 9–15
user-centered approaches, 38
software engineering, 5–7
foundation of, 5
waterfall model, 5–6
special needs, 356–358
addressing, 356
elderly users, 357–358
tradeoffs, 357
users with disabilities, 357
special-purpose prototypes, 204
squint test, 117
defined, 56
as guide, 71
illustrated, 57
stakeholder profiles, 54–56
defined, 54
organization, 54–56
science fair case study, 55–56
stakeholders
activities, 48
defined, 43
hypothetical, 66
needs and concerns of, 51
in observation and interviewing activities,
relations, 56
standards, 349–351
connotation, 349
efforts, 350
usability engineering, 350
from user experience perspective, 350
user interface, 349–351
statistical tests, 363–365
data, 364–365
results, 363
used in summative evaluation, 364
variations, 363
storefront testing, 243
storyboards, 200
defined, 190
illustrated, 191
interaction, 189–192
side effects, 192
subjective reactions, 244
subtasks
analyzed from VSF design scenarios, 250
critical, 250
presentation of, 257
satisfaction measures, 252
summative evaluation, 27–28
defined, 228
statistical tests used in, 364
See also formative evaluation
synchronous collaboration, 306–307
defined, 306
electronic brainstorming, 307
floor control, 307
See also collaboration
system feedback, 160
system functionality, 79–80
design of, 81
as essence of interactive system, 81
specification of, 79
user interface, 79–80
system goals
defined, 161
expressing indirectly, 163
expressing with goals, 162
interaction style, 161–163
opportunistic goals, 163–164
satisfying with small vocabulary, 163
selecting, 161–164
semantic directness, 161
task goal translation into, 161
systematic documentation, 277
tacit knowledge, 44
defined, 44
explicit knowledge view vs., 46
in troubleshooting, 47
tangible bits, 316
task analysis, 56–58
diagrams, 57
hierarchical, 57
hierarchical, of exhibit construction, 59
hierarchical, of exhibit judging, 60
usability specifications and, 230
tasks
active, display of, 115
benchmarks, 241
carried out by stakeholders, 58
decomposing, 193
goal translation to system goals, 161
instructions, 205
with many steps, 57
performance times, 243
repeated testing of, 248
science fair case study, 56–58
technological innovation and, 82
times/errors, combining, 265–266
TeamLinks development plan, 341
teams
activity simulation, 54
composition, 342
organizational structures, 343
technical issue expression, 344
technology exploration, 93
usability specialists in, 342–345
technological determinism, 82
technology evaluation, 358–359
technology evolution, 358–359
text alignment controls, 123–124
think-aloud
protocols, 243
reports, 269
techniques, 12–13
thinking/doing conflict, 23
tiled display, 170
tradeoffs
breadth and depth, 131
consistency, 127
cost-benefit analysis, 345
costs, 345
defined, 7
in design, 7
designing for effectiveness, 84
information design, 147
interaction design, 188
management of, 20
new technologies, 359
power vs. ease of learning, 176
safety, 355
special needs, 357
user interface standards, 350
waterfall method, 7
transfer of learning, 127
Trouble Ticketing System (TTS), 47
troubleshooting, 47
Tufte’s example, 112–113
tutorials, 281–284
analysis and iterative design process, 283
defined, 281
design challenge, 282–283
dynamically linked to users’ needs, 284
illustrated tracks, 282
information display, 281
scaffolding, 281
simulating real systems, 282
See also user documentation
ubiquitous computing, 313–317
advances, 313
challenges for usability engineering, 314
claims analysis and, 333
context aware, 315
defined, 313
infrastructure problem, 317
integration of, 316–317
proxy servers and, 314
in science fair, 332–334
types of, 313
See also interaction paradigms
usability
in 1990s, 13
benefits, 15
as broad concept, 359
broadening of, 13
cost-justifying, 345–349
defined, 9
emergence of, 9–14
ethics of, 352–359
experts, 15
explicit objectives, 20
issues, resolution of, 201
in late 1980s, 13
organizational structures integrating,
in organizations, 342–349
outcomes, 252
perspectives, 10
POV issues, 103–104
problem solution, 10
in software development, 9–15
summary, 33
user interaction difficulties and, 81
usability engineering, 14–15
as a profession, 344–345
benefits estimation, 347
case study, 29–33
defined, 14
estimation management, 347
focus, 14
goal, 48
indirect benefits, 349
long-term contributions of, 235
organizational role, 342
in practice, 341–362
prototyping approaches, 199
safety and, 353
small mobile device challenges for, 314
summary, 33
usability testing as core of, 204
user interaction scenarios and, 14
in development team, 342–345
key job requirement, 344
requirements analysis and, 38
role in requirements development, 344
usability evaluation, 227–271
benefits of, 227
case study, 247–271
defined, 227
exercises, 270–271
formative evaluation, 228
high-level goal, 248
mediated evaluation, 229
methods, 228–229
as ongoing process, 231
project ideas, 271
specifications for, 230–232
subject recruitment in, 246
summary, 269–270
summative evaluation, 228
user documentation, 292
user interaction scenarios and, 253–254
usability inspection, 233–235
defined, 233
for early indication of problems, 250
feedback and, 234
heuristic evaluation, 233
problem classification phase, 234
science fair case study, 248–250
usage context, 234
validity of findings and, 234
usability labs
defined, 242
testing in, 243
use of, 242
usability specifications, 230–232
analytic evaluation and, 231
assessing, 268–269
constant reference to, 268
defined, 230
developing, 250–252
evaluation and, 247
for formative evaluation, 248
fully elaborated, 251
ideas behind, 230–231
mediated evaluation and, 232
outcomes, 252
parallel specification process, 230
refining, 268–269
sample, 231
science fair case study, 250–269
summary, 269
task analysis and, 230
testing, 252–268
usability testing, 204–207
categorical data, 264
change scores, 266
early working system versions for, 205
in laboratory, 241–244
materials development, 255–262
participant recruitment, 254–255
planning, 270
prototypes for, 204–207
satisfaction outcomes, 266
test task summary, 265
as usability engineering core, 204
usability specifications, 252–268
user interface prototypes and, 203
variability in results, 241
See also prototyping; reporting
usage context, 81
use cases, 19
defined, 257
sample, 258
user documentation, 273–302
bound reference manual, 273
claims, 298–300
context and intelligence, 290–292
defined, 273
demonstrations, 280–281
exercises, 301–302
information needs, 274
in the interface, 284–287
as iterative process, 300
minimalist model, 283
paper and online manuals, 278–280
production paradox, 274–276
project ideas, 302
refining, 300
scenarios, 295–298
self-instruction, 276
socially mediated, 287–289
summary, 300–301
systematic, 277
tutorials, 281–284
types of, 273
usability evaluation, 292
writing, 276
See also documentation design
user groups, 287–289
organization, 287
See also user documentation
actions, 18–19
as basis of usability evaluation, 253–254
defined, 16
descriptions, 17
design of, 27
events, 19
example, 16–17
plot, 18
requirements analysis and, 48
use cases vs., 19
See also scenarios
user interface design
advice, 117
errors, 117
Gestalt principles and, 113
information visualization, 131
perceptual distinctions and, 116
perceptual groupings, 117
restraint, 117
squint test, 117
visual metaphors in, 128
white space, 117
user interface prototypes
build options, 198
defined, 198
evolutionary development, 207–209
tools, 213
usability testing and, 203
user interface standards, 349–351
efforts, 350
features, 350
tradeoffs, 350
from user experience perspective, 350
user interface(s), 80
defined, 80
display organization, 114–118
as “gatekeeper,” 81
graphical/text-based interaction support,
intelligent, 317–326
localizing, 352
needs analysis, 81
pragmatics, 171–172
programming platforms, 150
user reaction survey, 260–262
defined, 260
illustrated, 261
open-ended questions, 262
users
with disabilities, 357
elderly, 357–358
evaluation participation, 240–241
experience with system, 80
insight, 240
interactions with system, 267
involvement, 43–47
requirements, exploring, 198–201
with special needs, 178
subjective reactions, 244
user-system conversations, 189
validity
field studies and, 239
self-reported incidents and, 240
usability inspections and, 240
in usability testing in laboratory, 242
variables
categorical, 263
dependent, 245
hypotheses, 245
interval, 264
levels, 245
number of, 245
operationalized, 245
ordinal, 264
veridicality, 326
vertical prototypes, 207
video prototyping, 203
View Matcher, 135
virtual reality (VR), 326–329
advantages, 327
application examples, 326
claims analysis and, 337
in desktop environments, 329
feedback, 328
immersive environments, 328
overhead, 328
presence, 328
as research topic, 326
in science fair case study, 336–338
veridicality, 326
See also interaction paradigms
Virtual School
collaboration, 310
critical point, 4
defined, 3
design scenario, 3
interactions, 311
requirements analysis, 46–47
tools, 4
visual design program, 127
calculator example, 129–130
leverage, 129
in user interface design, 128
See also metaphors
visual programming environment, 214
visual vocabulary, 149
visualization
focus+context, 132
hierarchy, 133
information, 132
of large data sets, 133–134
walk-up-and-use systems, 284
waterfall model, 5–6
defined, 8
framework, 8
requirements analysis under, 37–38
tradeoffs, 7
Web design, 136–137
as backward step, 136
frames, 137
multimedia, 137
page size, 136–137
writing style, 137
white space, 117
widgets, 189
Wilcoxon U, 365
defined, 161
updating, 305
use of, 166
window manipulation, 174–175
within-subjects design, 246
Wizard of Oz simulation, 205–207
work practices
analyzing, 38–43
dimensions, 38–39
workflow system, 45–46
workplace
activities of, 39
artifacts of, 39
social context of, 39
studies, 52
technology support and, 52–53
workplace themes, 61–64
defined, 61
groupings, 63
identifying, 63
importance of, 64
summary, 65
tabular representation, 63
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