12.9. Wrap-Up

In this chapter we discussed polymorphism, which enables us to “program in the general” rather than “program in the specific,” and we showed how this makes programs more extensible. We began with an example of how polymorphism would allow a screen manager to display several “space” objects. We then demonstrated how base-class and derived-class pointers can be aimed at base-class and derived-class objects. We said that aiming base-class pointers at base-class objects is natural, as is aiming derived-class pointers at derived-class objects. Aiming base-class pointers at derived-class objects is also natural because a derived-class object is an object of its base class. You learned why aiming derived-class pointers at base-class objects is dangerous and why the compiler disallows such assignments. We introduced virtual functions, which enable the proper functions to be called when objects at various levels of an inheritance hierarchy are referenced (at execution time) via base-class pointers or references. This is known as dynamic binding or late binding. We discussed virtual destructors, and how they ensure that all appropriate destructors in an inheritance hierarchy run on a derived-class object when that object is deleted via a base-class pointer or reference. We then discussed pure virtual functions and abstract classes (classes with one or more pure virtual functions). You learned that abstract classes cannot be used to instantiate objects, while concrete classes can. We then demonstrated using abstract classes in an inheritance hierarchy. You learned how polymorphism works “under the hood” with vtables that are created by the compiler. We used runtime type information (RTTI) and dynamic casting to determine the type of an object at execution time and act on that object accordingly. We also used the typeid operator to get a type_info object containing a given object’s type information.

In the next chapter, we discuss many of C++’s I/O capabilities and demonstrate several stream manipulators that perform various formatting tasks.