In 1992, OSHA issued the Bloodborne Pathogens Standards, a set of standards meant to lower the accidental occurrence of bloodborne infections, such as HIV and hepatitis. The standards were revised in 2001 and provide steps that must be followed in all workplaces where employees can reasonably be expected to come in contact with blood or other body fluids. For example, people who are in the environmental health, safety, or emergency response professions, among others, fall under this standard. OSHA requires all workers who may come into contact with infectious bodily fluids to be educated about bloodborne pathogens and trained in how to reduce the risks of infection. This preparation should help workers reduce their risks and employers’ health care costs. Figure 16.3 summarizes key management steps based on the OSHA standards.

According to ADA guidelines, having HIV infection or AIDS does not necessarily prevent people from performing the essential functions of most jobs.41 Thus, organizations must make reasonable accommodations for infected employees. Reasonable accommodation might include adjustments to work schedules or workstation modifications. For example, one company gave a manager with AIDS a chair that converted into a sleeping recliner and allowed a 90-minute break in the afternoon.42 The chair allowed the manager to deal with the drop in his energy level in the afternoon. The manager scheduled all meetings in the morning and came into work extra hours on evenings and weekends, if needed. This arrangement was reasonable and provided an important accommodation for the manager at minimal cost.

ADA guidelines also affect the hiring process. Employers cannot ask job candidates about their HIV or AIDS status or require job candidates to take an HIV test before making a job offer. Testing can be done and questions posed after a job offer is made. However, test results must be kept confidential. The job offer cannot be withdrawn on the basis of a positive HIV test unless the employer can demonstrate that the person would pose a direct threat to coworkers or customers and that this threat could not be eliminated through reasonable accommodation. Such demonstration would be all but impossible in most jobs.

In addition to complying with the guidelines issued by federal agencies, some organizations choose to proactively address the AIDS issue by developing an AIDS policy and education programs. Educational programs can provide accurate information about the disease and how it is transmitted. The Manager’s Notebook, “Proactive Approaches to AIDS in South Africa,” offers examples of companies that go beyond compliance with guidelines in their efforts to deal with AIDS in the workplace.

MANAGER’S NOTEBOOK Proactive Approaches to AIDS in South Africa

Global

Southern Africa, a beautiful area at the southern tip of the African continent, is in the midst of an HIV/AIDS epidemic. The percentage of adults in this area with HIV exceeds 17 percent, one of the highest rates of infection in the world. While this region accounts for approximately 10 percent of the world’s population, it is estimated that over 60% of deaths from AIDs have occurred in Southern Africa. This epidemic has had many negative effects, including reduced life spans and lowered productivity.

Business has been part of the effort to turn around the epidemic and improve the situation in the region. Heineken, Volkswagen, and BMW are examples of companies doing business in the nation of South Africa that have developed notable approaches to HIV/AIDS.

Given the limited public health care available in South Africa, Heineken’s operations there provide company health care to the local staff. In the 1990s, Heineken set up a network of in-house clinics that include doctors, nurses, lab technicians, and pharmacists as part of Heineken’s staff. The initial internal focus at Heineken broadened to include the local communities. In 2008, Heineken established a foundation that focuses on improving the health of people in the local South African communities where Heineken has operations.

Volkswagen of South Africa has received awards for its efforts to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS in the region. The company’s HIV/AIDS program focuses on prevention, treatment, and care. Their internal program includes an ongoing awareness campaign that emphasizes accurate information and support. A quarterly employee newsletter provides updated information on HIV/AIDS. The program also uses voluntary peer educators to assist in raising awareness and understanding among employees. Volkswagen South Africa provides full medical examinations for employees and has on-site employee assistance practitioners who provide support and counseling. Experts estimate that 11 percent of the country’s population, or 5.5 million people, are infected with the HIV virus. The epidemic has cut life expectancy in South Africa to 51 years. Social responsibility requires businesses in South Africa to be proactive about the epidemic and to be part of the larger solution. Volkswagen and BMW are two examples of companies doing business in South Africa that have developed notable approaches to HIV/AIDS.

Volkswagen South Africa employs over 6,000 people in South Africa. The company’s HIV program, which has an annual budget of $167,000, provides the following:

• ▪ Medical services for employees and their family members

• ▪ Antiretroviral therapy for employees and their family members

• ▪ Free condoms for employees

BMW South Africa employs approximately 3,000 workers. BMW’s HIV/AIDS program features the following components:

• ▪ Peer educators

• ▪ Training and workshops

• ▪ Free condoms

• ▪ Voluntary HIV/AIDS counseling and testing

• ▪ Antiretroviral therapy

Sources:Based on Anyanwu, J. C., Siliadin, Y. G., and Okonkwo, E. (2013). Role of fiscal policy in tackling the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Southern Africa. African Development Review, 25, 256–275; Chicoine, L. (2012). Aids mortality and its effect on the labor market: Evidence from South Africa. Journal of Development Economics, 98, 256–269; Van Cranenburgh, K. C., and Arenas, D. (2013, June 17). Strategic and moral dilemmas of corporate philanthropy in developing countries: Heineken in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Business Ethics, published online; Commended: Volkswagen South Africa, case study available at www.gbchealth.org/commended-company-2012-volkswagen-south-africa , accessed on October 2, 2013; Bolton, P. L. (2008). Corporate responses to HIV/AIDS: Experience and leadership from South Africa. Business and Society Review, 113, 277–300.▪▪

As illustrated in the Manager’s Notebook, increasing awareness and educating workers can be positive and proactive steps taken by companies. However, as an upcoming manager, you should be aware that there are boundaries to discussion of AIDS-related issues. Specifically, the ADA includes strict confidentiality provisions in regard to employee medical information. Confidential medical information can be disclosed to supervisory personnel only if they need to know for purposes of providing reasonable accommodation or to safety personnel who might be required to provide emergency medical services to the employee.43 An employer who discloses an employee’s medical condition, such as AIDS, risks violating the employee’s right of privacy and the right to work without discrimination as provided by the ADA. Open discussion of the issue of AIDS in the workplace can help create a positive and productive environment, but disclosure of an employee’s AIDS status is legally prohibited.

Approximately half of U.S. organizations with 1,000 or more employees report the occurrence of workplace violence. However, approximately 70 percent of U.S. companies do not have policies regarding workplace violence.46 Proactive management that assesses risks and puts a policy in place should prevent the occurrence of violence in the workplace. Although a criminal trying to rob a business or a disgruntled former employee may seem obvious risks that should be addressed in an organization, another source of risk is domestic violence.

Domestic violence is probably viewed by many people as a private issue, but it can impact the workplace. One study has estimated that one third of domestic violence incidents happen in workplaces, from parking lots to offices.47 Just how widespread is the problem of domestic violence? Approximately 26 percent of women in the workplace identify themselves as victims or survivors of domestic violence.48 Domestic violence affects the employee’s well-being as well as the company’s bottom line. Domestic violence can adversely affect an employee’s performance through absenteeism, tardiness, poor performance, and mistakes on the job.

Some states and companies are being proactive about domestic violence. Laws protecting domestic violence victims in the workplace have been put in place in 14 states and in various municipalities. The law in the state of Illinois, for example, offers broad protection for victims of domestic violence. In Illinois, employers with 15 or more employees are prohibited from discriminating or retaliating against domestic violence victims and have a responsibility to make reasonable accommodations for victims, such as transferring the employee and changing phone numbers and work schedules.49 The clothing retailer Macy’s West provides training for managers and sales associates that addresses how to detect warning signs of domestic violence and how to respond to the issue.50 Liz Claiborne is another company using preventive management to reduce domestic violence. The company trains its managers in how to spot and respond to domestic violence. It also maintains a domestic violence response team that deals with victims. In two years, the company handled more than 40 cases that required more action than simply a referral.

Implementing a workplace violence policy and taking a preventive approach should lower the risk of violence erupting at work. However, the threat can still arise. The Manager’s Notebook, “Management Suggestions Regarding Domestic Violence,” provides suggestions to help manage a workplace threat due to domestic violence.

Another form of workplace violence is sabotage. Sabotage is not physical violence, but just the same, it is a violent act. Acts of sabotage can be directed either at a person, such as attempts to damage someone’s career, or at an organization, such as attempts to damage equipment or reputation. Most sabotage includes an aspect or motive of revenge. Angry and bitter employees have done everything ranging from putting rodents into food products and needles in baby food to starting company fires and wiping out computer databases.51

MANAGER’S NOTEBOOK Management Suggestions Regarding Domestic Violence

Ethics/Social Responsibility

Domestic violence can spill into the workplace, affecting the abuse victim and others. The following are some management suggestions when there is an identifiable domestic violence threat:

• ▪ Request that local law enforcement patrol the workplace, particularly at the beginning and end of an abuse victim’s shift.

• ▪ Provide closer parking for the abuse victim so that he or she has a shorter walk into the building. Extra parking lot patrols at the beginning and end of each work shift can be an effective use of resources.

• ▪ If an escort for the employee to and from the parking lot seems like a good idea, provide someone who is competent in this task. Unless he or she has security training, an escort shouldn’t just be the nice person in the office.

• ▪ Use monitoring and detection devices, such as surveillance equipment. They can give immediate warning of an on-site problem.

• ▪ Temporarily move the employee to another site or work station.

• ▪ In an extreme case, provide the employee time off through an administrative leave or sick leave.

For additional information and help with developing policies to prevent workplace tragedies due to domestic violence, go to www.workplacesrespond.org .

Sources:Based on Gurchiek, K. (2005). Study: Domestic violence spills over into the workplace. HRMagazine, 50, 32, 38; Savard, D., and Kennedy, D. B. (2013). Responding to intimate partner violence in the workplace. Security Journal, 26, 249–263; Twigg, T., and Crane, R. (2009). Ending the silence on domestic violence in the workplace. Dental Economics, 99, 33–34.▪▪

The frequency and prevalence of sabotage is difficult to assess. However, experts suggest that sabotage is increasingly a problem for organizations. Many saboteurs are disgruntled former employees who, as the victims of downsizing or termination, feel underappreciated and unfairly treated by their former employers. Disgruntled employees who retaliate by doing damage to a computer system pose a major concern in organizations.

Whatever form workplace violence may take, managers need to take responsibility for reducing or eliminating violence in the workplace. To this end, they must be sensitive to the causes of workplace violence. Many people feel pressured in their jobs and fear layoffs. Workplace events such as negative performance appraisals, personality conflicts with coworkers or managers, or personal problems such as a divorce add to this existing stress level, and a potentially dangerous person may emerge.

Certainly, managers cannot eliminate all these pressures, which are realities of everyday life in modern organizations. However, they can make sure that employees are treated fairly. Treating employees as though they are expendable will not create commitment to the company and could be enough to trigger a violent reaction. Managers should deal with performance problems by focusing on the behavior and future improvement, rather than condemning the person for past performance problems (see Chapter 7 on performance appraisal). Managers should never discipline employees in front of coworkers; doing so can humiliate the person and incite a violent reaction.52

Managers should also take steps to reduce the possibility of hiring workers who might be prone to violence. For example, interviewers might ask job candidates to describe how they reacted to a past management decision they did not agree with and why they did so.53 The responses to this question and follow-up questions could be quite revealing. Also, interviewers should check for evidence of substance abuse or emotional problems, which might be indicated by careless driving or DWI (driving while intoxicated) entries on driving records. Unexplained gaps in a person’s employment history should be carefully examined. Avoiding a negligent hiring charge requires thorough background checks.54

Many thousands of workplace accidents and injuries reported each year have been attributed to exposure to toxic chemicals. In the past, workers were often required to handle chemicals without being fully informed of the hazards involved. In 1983, however, OSHA’s hazard communication standard gave employees the right to know about hazardous chemicals in the workplace (see Figure 16.1). The current standard requires manufacturers and users of hazardous chemicals to identify the chemicals, provide employees with information about them, and train employees in understanding the dangers and in how to handle them.63

Determining whether a substance might have hazardous effects and the levels at which toxicity is a concern can be a difficult task that requires sorting through a variety of sources. To help streamline this process, the U.S. Department of Labor and health professionals have developed an online decision-support system. The purpose of the system, called Haz-Map , is to help users recognize and prevent diseases caused by chemical and biological agents in the workplace.64 Haz-Map is a useful tool for preventing toxic exposures and for identifying occupational diseases. The site is available to the public at . An example window from the Web site is presented in Figure 16.5. The site can be searched by hazardous agent as well as by job.

A new and controversial tool is genetic testing , which can be used to identify employees who are genetically susceptible to illness or disability. In 2008, federal legislation was passed that protects employees in regard to genetic testing. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) prohibits employers from discriminating against employees on the basis of genetic information. Employers are not allowed to request, require, or buy genetic information. GINA also prohibits health insurers from basing eligibility or premiums on the basis of genetic information.65