Index

@Risk¯, 113

Accelerated tests, see Test, accelerated

Acceleration factor, 242, 329–30

Acceptable quality level (AQL), see Quality, acceptable level

Activation energy, 331, 337

Ada (programming language), 266–7

Adhesives, 221–2

AGREE report, 10, 368

ANSI/ASQ Standard Z1-4, 391

Analysis, time series, see Time series analysis

Analysis of variance (ANOVA), see Variance, analysis of

Apollo project, 12

Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), 231

Arcing, 228

Ariane 5, 265, 269

Arrhenius law, 219, 235, 330

Arrival value, 62–3

Assembler language, 300

Attributes, sampling by, see Acceptance sampling

Automatic optical inspection (AOI), 399

Automatic test equipment (ATE), 399

Automatic X-ray inspection (AXI), 399

Availability, 12, 148

achieved, 409–10

instantaneous, 147–8

inherent, 409

operational, 410

steady state, 147

transient, 162

Average value, see Mean

Baldrige award, 446

Ball grid array (BGA), 232

Bathtub curve, 9, 84

Bayes' theorem, 24, 66

Bayesian sample size reduction, 365

BCH code, 272

Bellcore, 138

Benard approximation, 83

Bernoulli trials, 48

Binomial distribution, see Distribution, binomial

B-life, 85, 212

Black's law, 235

Block diagram analysis (BDA), 152–3

practical aspects, 156

B-percentile life, see B-life

Boltzmann's constant, 219, 235

BQR Reliability Engineering, 188

Brainstorm, 301–2, 398–9

British Standard (BS)

BS 5760, 11

BS 6001, 391

BS 9400, 236, 238

Brittleness, 207, 220

Built-in test (BIT), 187, 416

Burn-in, 8, 237–8

C, C++ (programming languages), 271

Cables, electrical, 240

Calibration, 417

Capacitors, 239

Capability

approval, 236

process, 128

Cause and effect diagram, 396

Caveat emptor, 428

CECC, 234, 236

Censored data, 73, 77

interval censored, 74

left censored, 75

right censored, 73

Central limit theorem, 33, 44

Central tendency, 29

Centroid test, 62

Ceramics, 207, 220

CERT, see Test, combined environment

CFR, see Failure rate, constant

Chain rule, see Product rule

Characteristic life, see Scale parameter

Chart, process control, 388–9

Chernobyl accident, 157

China 299B, 137

Chip scale packaging (CSP), 232

χ² (chi-square) distribution, see Distribution χ²

χ² test for goodness of fit, 59

χ² test for significance, 56

Cleanroom (software), 275

Coefficient of determination, 218

Cold standby, see Redundancy standby

Combined environment reliability test (CERT), see Test, combined environment reliability

Compiler (software), 271

Complexity factors for microelectronic devices, 137

Components

electronic, 226–7

passive, 229

mechanical, 189

selection, 220

Composites, 220

Computer-aided engineering (CAE), 184–5, 449

Concorde accident, 157

Condensation, 218–19

Confidence (statistical), 52

interval, 51–2

limits, 22, 52

on continuous variables, 52

on discrete data, 60

on plotted data, 71, 80

on shape parameter, 38, 68

Configuration control, 198

Confounding, 294

Connectors, electrical, 193

Control factor, 298

Corona discharge, 228

Correction factor, 288

Correlation (statistical), 86

Corrosion, 194

Covariance, 186

Covariate, 347

C-rank method, 365

Creep, 214

Critical items list, 193

Cumulative distribution function (c.d.f.), 31

CUSUM chart, 343–4

Cut set, 153

Data

analysis, exploratory (EDA), 346–7

analysis for accelerated test, 321

censored, 73

reliability, see Reliability data bases

reliability of (software), 139

Debugging (software), 269, 274

Decoupling (capacitors), 251–2

Defence Standard (UK)

00–40/41, 11, 14

07–55, 309, 432

Degradation analysis, 197–8, 362–3

Degrees of freedom, 37

Deming, W. E., 14–15

award, 446

Dependability, 429

Derating, stress, 120

for electronics, 258

Design

analysis methods, 231, 314

in test planning, 188

of experiments (DOE), 197, 257

matrix, 291

modular, 151–2

parameter, 298

for processes, 134, 136

for production, test and maintenance (electronics), 138, 234

for reliability, 177

ratio, 368–9

review, 220

check lists, 282

simplification (“KISS”), 252

thermal, for electronics, 247

tolerance, for electronics, 254, 255

DfR, see Design for Reliability

DFR, see Failure rate, decreasing

Distortion, 244

Distribution (statistical), 95

binomial, 58, 66

χ² (chi-square), 37

continuous, summary of, 30

cumulative, 31

discrete, 19

exponential, 35–6

extreme value, 38–9

relation to load and strength, 41

F, 40

Γ (gamma), 36, 43

Gaussian, see Distribution, normal

Gumbel, see Distribution, extreme value

independent and identical (IID), 57, 63

lognormal, 35

of maintenance times, 410

mixed, 71, 82, 97, 98

multimodal, 29, 46

normal (Gaussian), 33

Poisson, 50

Rayleigh, 80

rectangular, 109–10

skewed, 45

triangular, 109–10

unimodal, 29

Weibull, 37

Distribution-free statistics, see Non-parametric methods

Duane method, 373–4

Ductility, 207, 242

Drucker, P. F., 11, 398, 449

Durability, 1–2, 308

Electrical overstress (EOS), 234–5

Electromagnetic interference and compatibility (EMI/EMC), 193, 244, 272

testing, 218

Electromigration, 235, 331

Electronic(s)

components, 246

hi-rel, 10, 248

passive, 229, 238

design automation (EDA), 184

reliability prediction, 189

Electro-optical devices, 244

Electrostatic discharge damage (ESD), 228

Enabling event, 156

Environmental

factor, 309

protection, 216

specification, 267

stress screening (ESS), see Screening, environmental stress

Equivalent life, 210

Error, 6, see also Software errors

Estimate, 59, 104

ETOPS, 156

Event series analysis, see Series of events

European Foundation of Quality Management (EFQM), 447

Expected value, 33

Expected test time (ETT), 354

Exploratory data analysis (EDA), 346–7

Exponential distribution, see Distribution, exponential

Extreme value distributions, see Distribution, extreme value

Eyring models, 332

Factorial experiments, 287, 292, 296

Failure

causes of, 2, 4

common mode, 146, 155

data analysis (for reliability growth), 197

definition of, 352

foolish, 318

free life, see Life, failure free

in time (FIT), 137

intermittent, 219, 239

mode, effect and criticality analysis (FMECA), 184, 272

computer programs for, 157

in maintenance planning, 413, 415

for processes, 2

reliability predictions for, 141

for software-based systems, 272

in test planning, 322

uses for, 187

modes, 98

electronic devices (summary), 235, 237

non-material, 191–2

software, 64, 302

physics of, 138, 140

rate, xxvi, 84

constant (CFR), 9

decreasing (DFR), 8

increasing (IFR), 9

reporting, analysis and corrective action system (FRACAS), 323, 404

for production QA, 14, 195

for software, 306

review board, 323–4

Fan out, 249

Fasteners, 221

Fatigue, 208–9

design against, 213–14, 281

high cycle, 313

low cycle, 313

maintenance for, 415

Fault tolerance (software), 269–70

Fault tree analysis (FTA), 157–8

FIDES, 140

Finite element analysis (FEA), 196–7

F-distribution, see Distribution, F

Firmware, 281

Fishbone diagram, see Cause and effect diagram

Fisher, R. A., 91

FIT (Failure in Time), 137

Flying probe/fixtureless tester, 400

Foolish failure, see Failure, foolish

FRACAS, see Failure reporting, analysis and corrective action system

Fracture, 206–7

Freak, 237

Fretting, 215

Functional test, see Test, functional

F-test, see Variance ratio test

Fuzzy logic, 262, 271

Gamma distribution, see Distribution, Γ (gamma)

GJB/z 299B, 140

Glassivation, 230

Goodness of fit, 59

χ² test for, 67

Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K–S) test for, 96, 115

Griffith's law, 208

Gumbel distribution, see Distribution, extreme value

Gumbel slope, 101

Hamming code, 272

Hazard

function, 32, 40

and operability study (HAZOPS), 184, 189–90

plotting, 130

rate, 8

Histogram, 29

Hobbs, G., 319

Hooke's law, 206

Hot carriers, 235

House of quality, 183

Humidity, 219

Hybrid packaging (for ICs), 233

Hypothesis

Null, 53–4

Testing, 53

IEC 62380, 138–9

IFR, see Failure rate, increasing

IID, see Distributions, independent and identical

In-circuit test, see Test, in-circuit

Inductors, 238–9

Infant mortality, 9

Inference (statistical), 53–4

non-parametric, 57–8, 365

Inspection, 390

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)

IEEE Standard 1413, 140

IEEE Standard 1624, 443

Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST), 319, 402

Insulation, 240–41

Integrated circuits (ICs), see Microelectronics

Integrated logistic support (ILS), 418

Integrity, information, 272

Interactions, 135, 152

Interarrival value, 62–3

Interchangeability, 236, 418

Interface, hardware/software, 275, 281

Interference, load-strength, 5, 120

analysis of, 127, 189–90

effect on reliability, 13, 365

practical aspects, 131–2

time-dependent, 6, 235

Intermittent failures, 245

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 10, 236

International Standards Organization (ISO)

ISO9000, 429–30

ISO60300, 429

ISO61508, 430

Ishikawa, K., 11, 396

Jelinski–Moranda model for software reliability, 279–80

Jitter, 244

Juran, J. R., 11

Kaizen, 15, 17, 399, 404

Kirkendall voids, 242

Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, see Goodness of fit

Kurtosis, 30–31

Language, software, 262

Laplace test, 62

Latch-up, 259

Latin Hypercube, 112

Leadless chip carrier (LCC), 232

Learning factor, 137

Least squares, 85, 443

Life

data, 57, 70–73

data analysis, 70–71

cycle costs (LCC), 11, 14–16, 269

equivalent, 210

failure-free, 83, 212, 411–12

minimum, 38, 43, 82, 83, 314

Littlewood models for software reliability, 280

Load protection, 193–4

Load-strength analysis (LSA), 121, 189

Load-strength interference, see Interference, load-strength

Loading roughness, 121

Location parameter, see Mean

Logic controller, programmable (PLC), 271

Logic, fuzzy, 271

Logistic support analysis (LSA), 418

Lognormal distribution, see Distribution, lognormal

Lot tolerance percentage defective (LPTD), 391

Maintainability, 12, 148, 201, 408

analysis, 201

demonstration, 418

design for, 418

prediction, 417–18

Maintenance, 408

corrective, 408

of fatigue-prone components, 214

preventive, 408

reliability-centred (RCM), 413

schedules, 415

technology aspects, 415–17

of software, 416

time, distribution of, 410–11

Management, scientific, 430

Manufacturing

defects anlyser (MDA), 400

quality (assurance) (QA), see Quality, manufacturing

Markov analysis, 158–9

Mars polar orbiter, 265

Materials, 191

Matrix algebra, 475

Maximum Likelihood Estimator (MLE), 85, 87, 95

Mean, 30

active maintenance time (MAMT), 408

maintenance downtime (MDT), 410

maintenance time (MMT), 410

ranking, 76

time between failures (MTBF), 7, 8, 36, 314, 357, 361

time between maintenance actions (MTBMA), 409

time to failure (MTTF), 7, 8, 36, 88, 278, 330, 358

time to repair (MTTR), 12, 408, 417, 419

Measles chart, 396

Median, 30

Ranking, 76

tables for, 365, 457

Metal alloys, 220

Metallization, 230, 238

Microelectronics

Attachment, 234

failure modes, 234–6

failure rate model, 141

hybrid, 233

packaging, 233

screening, 236–8

specifications, 236

technologies, 232

Military handbooks and standards (US)

MIL-STD-105, 392

MIL-HDBK-217, 137–8, 229

MIL-HDBK-338, 239, 250

MIL-HDBK-470, 418

MIL-HDBK-472, 417, 418

MIL-HDBK-781, 309, 324, 367–73

MIL-STD-785, 10, 14, 428

MIL-STD-810, 309, 432

MIL-STD-883, 234, 237, 238, 246

MIL-HDBK-1388, 418

MIL-HDBK-1629MIL-STD-1629, 185, 189

MIL-STD-2164, 402

MIL-STD(Q)-9858, 424MIL- Q-9858, 429

MIL-STD(M)-38510, MIL-M-38510, 393

MIL-STD-38535MIL-STD-PRF 38535C, 236

Miner rule, 210

Minitab¯, 64, 285

MLE, see Maximum Likelihood Estimator

Mode (of failure), see Failure mode

Mode (of distribution), 29, 33

Modular design, 151

Modular software, 268

Modulus of elasticity, see Young's modulus

Monte Carlo simulation, see Simulation

M(t) method, 377, 380

Multi-chip module (MCM), 234

Multi-vari chart, 397

Murphy's law, 205

Musa model for software reliability, 278–9

National Astronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 10, 185, 265, 428

NATO

ARMP-1, 428

No fault found (NFF), 245, 348, 416

No trouble found (NTF), 416

Noise, electrical, 239

Noise factor, 298

Non-destructive test (NDT), 214, 413

Non-parametric analysis of variance, see Variance analysis, non-parametric methods

Non-parametric inference, see Inference, non-parametric

Non-parametric methods for reliability measurement, see Reliability demonstration, non-parametric methods

Normal distribution, see Distribution, normal

NSWC-06/LE10, 137, 139

Null hypothesis, see Hypothesis, null

Operating characteristic (OC), 298, 299, 370, 391, 394

Operator control, 390–91

Orthogonal array, 299, 303

Overstress, 205

Palmgren-Miner's law, 210

Packaging, microelectronics, see Microelectronics packaging

Parameter

design, 255, 256, 298

drift, 226

parasitic, 255

Parametric binomial, 360–61

Pareto analysis, 327–8, 381, 40

Parts, materials and processes (PMP) review, 14, 191, 228, 250

count, 137

defective per million (p.p.m.), 394

stress analysis, 137, 185

PASCAL (language), 271

Passive components, see Electronic components, passive

Passivation, 230

Path set, 153

Pdf, see Probability density function

Petri net, 165

Pin grid array (PGA), 232

Plastic, 249

Plastic encapsulated device (PED), 219, 238

Point processes, see Series of events

Poisson distribution

model for software reliability, 277–8

process, 50

see also Distribution, Poisson

Poka yoke, 200

Power spectral density (PSD), 312

PPM, 358

Prediction, see Reliability prediction

PRISM¯, 139

Probability, 115

conditional, 23

definitions, 29

density function, 28

distributions, 28

exclusive, 24

joint, 22

survival, 32, 36

plotting, 77

for extreme value distribution, 102

for lognormal distribution, 100

for mixed distributions, 97–8

for normal distribution, 100

papers for, 77

techniques, 78

for Weibull distribution, 78

ratio sequential distribution, 367–8

test (PRST), see Test, probability ratio sequential rules of, 22–3

Process

capability, 387

control charts, 389, 396

design, 199

improvement, 180

Product

liability (PL), 428, 448

rule, 23

Programmable logic device (PLD), 230

Proportional hazards modelling (PHM), 347

Protection

corrosion, 216

fatigue, 226

transient voltage, 246–7

wear, 226

Quad flat pack (QFP), 232

Qualified manufacturers' list (QML), 236

Quality

assurance (QA), 441

audit, 445

awards, 446

circles, 398

control (QC), 386

in electronics production, 399

costs, 425

factor, for electronic components, 141

function deployment (QFD), 181–3

level, acceptable (AQL), 391

management of, 425, 429

total (TQM), 11, 429, 430, 447

off/on-line, 199

standards for, 428–9

systems, 446

Randomizing (data), 296

Range chart, 389

Ranking, see Mean ranking; Median ranking Rank

regression, 80, 85

on X (RRX), 85

on Y (RRY), 85

Rate of occurrence of failure (ROCOF), 8, 339

Real-time systems, 263, 271

Reduced variate, 40

Redundancy, 144

active, 144

in electronics, 252

m-out-of-n, 145

standby, 145–6

Regression, 85

Reliability, 1

and Maintainability Symposium (RAMS), 12

apportionment, 169

block diagram (RBD), 143–4, 156

capability, 201

centred maintenance (RCM), 413, 419, 472

contracting for, 432

corporate policy for, 421

costs, 425, 426, 427

customer management of, 437, 438

of data, 272

data bases, 135

data collection and analysis, 351

demonstration, 357

use of non-parametric methods, 359

function, 37, 38

growth monitoring, 373, 376

in service, 371

human, 196

integrated programmes for, 421

intrinsic, 132, 135, 189

manual, 471

maturity, 201

measurement, see Reliability demonstration

models, 146

organization for, 439

project plan, 449

prediction, 134

for electronics, 228

for FMECA and FTA, 415

limitations of, 134

parts count method, 134, 137

practical approach, 121

for software, 264

standard methods for, 189

probabilistic, 6–7

programme, 13–14, 421

selecting for, 439–40

specifying, 431

standards, 428

testing, see Testing, reliability

training, 439, 440

ReliaSoft, 70

Renewal process, 63, 64, 147

general renewal process, 64, 147

ordinary renewal process, 147

Repairable systems, 9

reliability analysis for, 339

Request for proposals (RFP), 436

Resistors, 233

Re-test OK (RTOK), 416

Return period, 102

Review

code, 272

design, 191

Risk, 3

producer's/consumer's, 368, 391

Robustness (software), see Software robustness

ROCOF, see Rate of occurrence of failure

RoHS, 242

Rubber, 220

SAC305, 242

Safety, 411

integrity level (SIL), 430

margin, 121

standards, 438

Sampling, acceptance, 391

Scale parameter, 31, 33, 38, 78

Schick–Wolverton model, 279

Scientific management, 430

Screening

environmental stress (ESS), 141, 319, 402

highly accelerated stress (HASS), 198, 403, 469

for microelectronic devices, 236–8

Seals, 222

Semiconductors, discrete, 239

Sensitivity analysis, 115

Series of events, 61, 62, 312

rule, 23

Services, external, 436–7

Seven tools of quality, 398

Shape parameter, 38

confidence limits on, 52

Shewhart, W. A., 46

chart, 389–90

Shock (mechanical), 309

Sign test, 58

Signal-to-noise ratio, 298–301

Significance (statistical), 294

Simulation, Monte Carlo, 108

for electronic circuit analysis, 256–7

for life cycle cost analysis, 424

Six sigma, 48, 387, 446

design for (DFSS), 178, 446

lean, 446

Skewness, 29, 31, 33

Slow trapping, 235

S–N curve, 209–10

Sneak, 6

analysis (SA), 253

for software, 273

Soft errors, 235

Software

checking, 272

code generation, 267

compilers, 271

debugging, 269, 279, 283

defensive programming, 269

design, 295

analysis, 264

diversity, 270

in engineering systems, 263

errors

correction codes for, 272

reporting, 275

sources of, 267

timing, 267

failure modes, 272

FMECA, 272

fault tolerance, 269–70

interfaces, with hardware, 263, 264, 281

languages, 270–71

modularity, 268

programming style, 269

redundancy, 270, 281

reliability, 276–7

measurement, 277

prediction, 134, 277

re-use, 264

robustness, 267

sneak analysis (SA), 273

specifications, 267

structure, 268

structured walkthrough, 272

testing, 274–5

validation, 275

verification, 275

Solder, 241

fatigue, 241–2

lead-free, 242

tin-lead, 222, 241

Specification tailoring, 436

Spectroscopic oil analysis programme (SOAP), 216

Spread, 30–31

Standard deviation, 31

Standard error

of estimate, 52

of differences, 54

State space analysis, see Markov analysis

State transition diagram, 160, 164

Statistical process control (SPC), 47, 302, 386, 472

Statistics, 6, 21

computer software for, 64–5

Stochastic point processes, see Series of events transitional probability matrix

Strength

degradation, protection against, 177

mechanical, 222

theoretical, 207

ultimate tensile (UTS), 206

yield, 206

Stress

concentration, 208

mechanical, 206

Structured programs (software), 268

Success-run method, 358

Superimposed process, 63–4

Suppliers, 429

Surface mount devices (SMD), 232

Suspended items, 77, 82

System

design, 169

multi-socket, 341–3

on a chip, 230

Taguchi, G., 297

Technical and Engineering Aids to Management (TEAM) probability plotting papers, 71

Telcordia SR-332, 138

Tellegen's theorem, 256

Temperature

effects, 218–19

factor, 137

Test(ing)

accelerated, 318–19

accelerated, qualitative, 320

accelerated, quantitative, 320

analyse and fix (TAAF), 382

beta, 313

black box, 275

customer simulation, 313

development, 317

electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), 313

environmental, 306, 307

equipment, for electronics, 391

functional, 306

in-circuit, 400

integrated, 307

non-destructive (NDT), 214

planning, 189

probability ratio sequential (PRST), 367–8

production reliability acceptance (PRAT), 369, 371, 441

reliability, 308

combined environment (CERT), 310, 322

demonstration, 357

for one-shot items, 372–3

of software, 274

step-stress, 321

temperature, 312–13

truncated, 361

vibration, 311

white box, 275

yield analysis, 201

Testability (electronics), 258

Thermal

coefficient of expansion (TCE), 218

design for electronics, 247

Tie sets, 153

Time dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB), 235, 334

Timing (in electronics), 244

Time series analysis (TSA), 62, 63, 341

Tolerance

analysis, for electronics, 202

design, 255, 298

statistical, 199–200

Total quality management (TQM), 10, 429

Total service contracts, 433–4

Toughness, 207, 209

Transient voltage protection, 246

Transpose circuit, 256

Tree diagram, 161

Trend analysis, 62, 466

Tribology, 215

Useful life, 9, 84, 136

Validation, 198

design, 198

process, 198

product, 198

software, 275

Variability

production, control of, 386

Variables, sampling by, 391

Variance, 33

analysis of (ANOVA), 284

engineering interpretation of, 297

non-parametric methods for, 365

ratio test, 56

Variate, reduced, 40

Variation, 4, 19–20

assignable/non-assignable cause, 47

causes, 388

continuous, 28–30

control of, 390

curtailed, 44

design for, 130

deterministic, 112

discrete, 48

effects of, 47

functional, 47

in engineering, 41, 65

multimodal, 46

progressive, 44

random, 44

skewed, 60

test programme considerations, 308

Validation, Verification (software), 322

Vibration, 216

Vision systems, 399

VZAP, 246

Walkthrough, structured (for software), 272

Warranty

data, 349

formats, 349

improvement contracts, 433

Waterfall plot, 217

Wear, 191

Wearout, 4

Weibull++¯, 70

Weibull distribution, see Distribution, Weibull

Welding, 222

Worst case analysis (WCA), 256

X chart, 389

Young's modulus of elasticity, 206, 208

Zero defects (ZD), 398

z-notation, 22

z-test

for binomial data, 55

for normal data, 33