A
Aarhenius law, 224
AC/AC direct converter, 514
AC/AC matrix converters, 455, 456, 479; see also Current commutation; Direct AC/AC converter analysis
All Electric Aircraft concept, 455
bi-directional power switches, 458, 459
clamping reactive energy, 461
designing PWM algorithm, 458
Frenic-MX, 455
inductive load, 456
null-states, 458
possible space vector positions, 457–458
power switch implementation, 458–459
rotating vectors, 457
stationary vectors, 457
Varispeed F7, 455
voltage sources, 456
Yaskawa’s AC7 Matrix Converter, 455
Accelerated tests, 229; see also Lifetime
acceleration factor, 230
activation energy method, 229–231
for electronic equipment, 229
intermittent operating life test, 233
principle power cycling, 233
for thermal related wear-out, 230
time-to-failure, 230
voltage related acceleration factor, 231
voltage related, 231
Accelerator TM, 265
AC/DC converter, 9; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
AC/DC current source converter, 437, 439
AC/DC grid interface, 363; see also Closed loop current control methods; Diode rectifier; Grid synchronization; Pulse width modulation control
AC side inductance, 364–365, 367
bridge converter and output voltage waveforms, 366
conduction time interval, 365
DC side inductance, 364
GTO device uses, 366
high harmonic grid currents, 363
output voltage control, 363
overvoltage at switching, 364
power converters, 363
power semiconductor devices, 363
pulses within grid current, 367
PWM controller, 364
rectifier bridge output, 367
AC/DC SCR-based rectifier, 433
AC filter, 492
method, 229
Active gate drivers, 48; see also High-power semiconductor devices; Insular gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
active voltage balancing circuit, 48
implementation, 50
modern gate drivers, 49
principle circuits for, 49
unequal voltage sharing across IGBTs, 48
Active injection circuits, 383, 385
Adjustable speed drives (ASD), 8; see also Power electronics
AC/DC converter, 9
DC capacitor bank, 10
DC reactor, 11
intermediate circuit, 10
motor connection, 13
protection circuits, 12
sensors, 12
soft-charge circuit, 11
three-phase, 9
three-phase inverter, 12
Advanced control systems, 222
Advanced Electrical Power Systems (AEPS), 293
AEPS, see Advanced Electrical Power Systems (AEPS)
All Electric Aircraft concept, 455
Aluminum
heat-sink, 296
Analog Devices’ ADMC201/./331, 265
Application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC), 13, 245, 282
ASD, see Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
ASIC, see Application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC)
Automotive sector, 4; see also Transportation electrification systems
B
Back-EMF voltage, 450
Bartlett window, 538
Bi-directional power switches, 458, 459
Bi-directional power transfer with ZVT, 325; see also Zero-voltage transition (ZVT)
output filter effect on resonant operation, 326
power stage with dual module, 326
resonant capacitors voltage, 327
resonant operation, 326
three-phase system with resonant circuits, 327
B4 inverter, 346; see also Z-source inverter
asymmetrical phase voltages, 350
constraints, 351
controlling through sinusoidal references, 348
definition of PWM algorithms, 351–353
drawback of, 350
phase shifted references, 349
phase voltage generation, 346
pole voltages, 347
states and voltages, 347
topology, 342
vectorial analysis of, 346–351
vectorial representation, 349
voltage variation influence and compensation, 353–355
voltage vector on circular trajectory, 350
waveforms in fundamental frequency, 347
Blackman window, 538
BLDC motor, see Brushless DC motor (BLDC motor)
Boltzman constant, 224
Boost converter, 369; see also Insular gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
grid interface control, 369
second harmonic in reference signal, 369–370
single-switch three-phase, 372
Boost DC/DC converter, 421
power transfer through, 423
Bootstrap
capacitor, 302
diode, 302
Brake circuit, 11–12; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
Brushless DC motor (BLDC motor), 245
BSIMProPlus, 236
BTABERT, see RelXpert
Buck converter, 194
C
Capacitance, 91
Capacitor, see Voltage sources
Capacitor impedance, 92
Carrier signal, 63
Cauer model, 218
Central Processing Unit (CPU), 256
Ceramic substrate, 409
Choke, see DC reactor
Circuit with grid-side inductance, 368
Circular chain control, 430
Circular corona, 447
Circulation currents, 424, 425
PWM references, 426
PWM sequence generation, 427
Clamping device, 187
Clamping reactive energy, 461
Clarke transform, 134; see also Space vector modulation theory
exercises, 174
Closed-loop control practical aspects, 279, 290; see also Current control; Current measurement
Closed loop current control methods, 386; see also Proportional-Integrative-Sinusoidal controller (P-I-S controller)
applying voltage on d-axis, 392–393, 394
minimum time current control, 388, 390
phase current tracking methods, 395
PI control system, 386
step-down current modification effect, 393
switch table and hysteresis control, 393, 395, 396, 397
transient response times, 387
Coffin-Manson model, 232
Combination converters, 490, 491
Compensation with virtual negative inductance, 452
Computer run time reduction, 535; see also Processing power
Conduction intervals, 470
Constantane, 280
Control circuitry, 383, 384, 385
Controller, 13; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
Conventional back-to-back converter, 530
Conventional topology of power filter, 501
Converter; see also AC/AC matrix converters; Boost converter; Inverter
AC/AC direct converter, 514
AC/DC converter, 9
AC/DC current source converter, 437, 439
back-to-back, 530
boost DC/DC converter, 421
buck converter, 194
combination converters, 490, 491
power converters, 363
Converter control system, 515, 518
for capacitor voltage, 452
changes in cross-currents, 419, 420
with compensation, 452
solutions, 418
switching table, 419
voltage vectors from switching states, 419
Copper, 280
Counter
signal decoding, 251
CPU, see Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Critical energy, 227
Crowbar technique, 187
CSI, see Current Source Inverters (CSI)
Current
calculated with moving average, 505
Current commutation, 434, 459, 460
change in pulse shape, 435
control for, 435
factors in, 435
multistepped switching, 459
Current control, 420–421; see also Feed-forward controller; Proportional-Integrative-Sinusoidal controller (P-I-S controller)
accumulator method, 288
algorithm, 501
anti wind-up protection, 289–290
in coordinates, 284
feedback signal error, 285
feed-forward algorithm, 501
harmonic reference, 284, 285, 286
incremental controller, 288
open-loop transfer function, 284–285
rotating-reference frame, 284
steady-state value of time function, 285
system stability, 286
time-domain error signal, 285
tuning proportional-integral-derivative controllers, 288–289
ultimate sensitivity method, 289
Current controller with voltage limitation, 389
Current feedback compensator, 124; see also Deadtime interval
Current measurement, 279; see also Current sampling; Shunt resistor
current sensing transformer, 282–283
Hall-effect current sensors, 282
open-loop Hall sensor, 282
Current sampling, 283
sampling frequency, 284
Current Source Converters, 433, 449, 452, 470; see also Current commutation; Pulse width modulation algorithm; Pulse width modulation control
AC/DC SCR-based rectifier, 433
AC-side of, 449
advantages and disadvantages, 433
back-EMF voltage, 450
control system for capacitor voltage, 452
control with compensation, 452
DC/AC current source topology, 433
to eliminate LC resonance, 451
grid currents, 440
harmonic coefficient, 449
harmonics cancellation, 449
HCF, 450
High-Pass Filter, 451
output phase voltages after LC filter, 438, 439
resonance prevention, 449, 451
resonance with CSI-filter assembly, 449, 451
switching functions to define operation, 436–441
switching states and currents for, 434
system level waveforms, 437, 438, 440
Current Source Inverters (CSI), 525
algorithm, 526
converters, 526
resonance with CSI-filter assembly, 449, 451
Cyclo-converters, 511; see also Multilevel converters; Pulse width modulation generator
comparison, 518
four-quadrant, 513
four quadrant direct AC/AC converter, 515, 517
load-side current, 515
operation of, 513
performance comparison, 515
phase current, 514
power stage for 4-quadrant converter, 515, 517
two-quadrant, 513, 514, 515, 516
D
Datasheet, 55
DBC substrate, see Direct Bonded Copper substrate (DBC substrate)
DC/AC current source topology, 433
DC bus capacitor, 90; see also Three-phase inverter
capacitance, 91
capacitor impedance, 92
electrolytic capacitor equivalent circuit, 91
ESL, 92
ESR, 92
parameters in selection of, 92
DC capacitor bank, 10; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
DC coils, see DC reactor
DC Link, see Intermediate DC circuit
DCM, see Discontinuous mode of operation (DCM)
DC reactor, 11; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
Deadtime digital controllers, 253
Deadtime generator, 269
circuit time diagram, 253
Deadtime interval, 120; see also Pulse width modulation, carrier-based
drawbacks, 123
generation of, 121
IGBTs, 120
length estimation, 121
effect of load current during, 122
modified corrective voltage, 124
MOSFETs, 120
Defuzzification approach, 261; see also Fuzzy logic
Desat protection, 182, 183; see also Three-phase power converter
Design for reliability (DFR), 222, 238
solutions, 236
Design of experiments method, 223
DFR, see Design for reliability (DFR)
DFT, see Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
Digital hardware implementation, 250
Digital processor in power converter control, 253; see also Fuzzy logic
motor control DSPs, 256
multiprocessor system, 257–258
transputer devices, 258
Digital PWM controllers with counter, 246; see also FPGA implementation of SVM controllers
three-phase PWM generation with counter, 247
Digital signal processor (DSP), 8, 249, 281, 405
D-I-H method, see Direct-inverse-half method (D-I-H method)
Diode-clamped multilevel converter, 489–490
DC/DC converters, 368
inductive filter on DC side, 367
performance of, 365
topologies of, 364
voltage on DC intermediary circuit, 364
voltage ripple, 367
D-I-O method, see Direct-inverse-one method (D-I-O method)
DIP, see Dual inline package (DIP)
Direct AC/AC converter analysis, 532, 540; see also Intelligent power modules in direct AC/AC converter; Intelligent power modules in network of switches
accuracy, 537
acquired time signal sampling, 534
Bartlett window, 538
Blackman window, 538
choice of window function, 540
computer performance, 545
computer processing power, 545
computer run time reduction, 535
Euler-Fourier integral, 534
feed-forward compensation of grid voltage, 540
FFT in MATLAB, 540
Hamming window, 538
Hanning window, 538
harmonic analysis, 532
harmonic component calculation, 534
HCF for output voltage, 545
interleaved carriers, 543, 544
multipoint THD and HCF analysis automation, 543
output voltage spectra, 541
processing power evolution, 533
PWM control signals, 538
space vector modulation, 540
spectral results in different time windows, 537
stochastic ripple cancelation, 542, 543
synchronized PWM, 543
THD for output voltage, 544
THD of input current, 546
waveforms for switching frequency, 539
Direct Bonded Copper substrate (DBC substrate), 296, 297; see also Intelligent power modules (IPM)
advantages of, 297
alumina, 298
aluminum nitride, 298
beryllium oxide, 298
Direct-inverse-half method (D-I-H method), 153; see also Switching sequence
pulse generation, 154
three-phase voltage waveforms, 155
Direct-inverse-one method (D-I-O method), 153; see also Switching sequence
pulse generation, 154
three-phase voltage waveforms, 155
Direct Memory Access (DMA), 271
Direct transfer function, 463
Discontinuous mode of operation (DCM), 210
Discrete devices, 409
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), 533–534
Displacement factor control, 473
Distributed generation, see Grid interfaces
DMA, see Direct Memory Access (DMA)
Drain-source (Emitter–collector), 315
Drain-source voltage, 328
DSP, see Digital signal processor (DSP)
Dual inline package (DIP), 203
Dumping effect, 422
Duty cycles, 421
with AC variation, 62
to inductor current transfer function, 422–423
Dyadic matrix converter theory, 509
E
EconoPACK modules, 203
EconoPIM modules, 203
Electrolytic capacitor, 529
equivalent circuit, 91
Electromagnetic inference (EMI), 5, 49, 279, 198
standard requirements, 16
Emitter–collector, see Drain-source (Emitter–collector)
Enclosures, 205
cooling, 206
Energy transfers, 370
Equivalent series inductance (ESL), 92
Equivalent series resistance (ESR), 92
ESL, see Equivalent series inductance (ESL)
ESR, see Equivalent series resistance (ESR)
Euler-Fourier integral, 534
Event Manager, 266
deadtime generator, 269
hardware implementation of SVM, 268–269, 270, 271
individual PWM channels, 270
software implementation of carrier-based PWM, 267
software implementation of SVM, 267–268
External periodic signal, 250
F
FACTS, see Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)
Failure, physics of, 238
Failure rate, 221; see also Power electronics
for diverse components, 225–226
for electronic components, 225
system, 223
Failure Rate Based Spice (FaRBS), 236
Failures-in-time (FIT), 221
FaRBS, see Failure Rate Based Spice (FaRBS)
Fastest Fourier Transform in the West (FFTW), 540
Fault management system, 222
Feedback control loop, 244
Feed-forward controller, 399, 401; see also Proportional-Integrative-Sinusoidal controller (P-I-S controller)
for additional degree of freedom, 399
operation synchronization, 402, 403
FFTW, see Fastest Fourier Transform in the West (FFTW)
Field programmable gate array (FPGA), 13, 197, 245
Field-Stop (FS), 36
FIT, see Failures-in-time (FIT)
Flash memories, 270
benefits, 272
chips, 272
comparison, 275
hardware architecture with, 272
memory look-up tables, 272
for power conversion control, 273
for PWM waveforms optimization, 273, 274
serial peripheral interface principles, 271
state sequences, 273
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS), 499
Flyback power converter, 209; see also Three-phase power converter
features, 211
right-half-plane zero frequency, 211
waveforms for, 210
Flying capacitor multilevel converter, 487–489
Foster model, 219
Fourier series, 74
Four leg inverter, 201; see also Three-phase power converter
4-level converter, 488
4-Q converter circuit, 517
Four quadrant direct AC/AC converter, 515, 517
Four quadrant IGBT Cyclo-converter comparison, 518
4-Wire method, see Kelvin method
FPGA, see Field programmable gate array (FPGA)
FPGA implementation of SVM controllers, 250; see also Digital PWM controllers with counter
counting signal decoding, 251
digital hardware implementation, 250
external periodic signal, 250
memory look-up table, 250
SVM algorithm implementation, 251
SVM digital synthesis, 252
Free-wheeling diodes, 29; see also Power MOSFET device
Frenic-MX, 455
Frequency changer, 462–463, 509
FS, see Field-Stop (FS)
Fuse, 183; see also Three-phase power converter
action on high fault current, 184
branch-circuit rated class, 185
DC circuit, 185
IGBT-based circuit, 185
for medium voltage applications, 186
melting of, 184
placement of, 185
rated current of, 184
selection, 184
Fuzzy logic, 260
-based control relations, 261
controller rule, 264
fuzzy estimation of time intervals, 263
fuzzy subsets, 261
linear defuzzification approach, 261
G
Galvanic isolation, 416
Gate control designs for equal current sharing, 415–416
Gate driver, 32, 296; see also Power MOSFET device
control for current sharing, 416
Gate turn-off (GTO), 165; see also High-power semiconductor devices
devices, 312
Generalized vector transform, 521; see also Intelligent power modules in network of switches
direct transfer function, 521–522
orthonormalized base vectors, 522
sinusoidal waveform, 521
vector space dimension, 521, 522
to work with non-sinusoidal references, 523–525
Glue logic circuitry, 477
Grid
currents, 440, 504; see also Total harmonic distortion (THD)
voltage as feed-forward component, 520
Grid interfaces, 14; see also Power electronics
control, 369
EMI standard requirements, 16
for extended power range, 501
frequency and voltage variations, 17
grid harmonics, 15
maximum power connected at low-voltage grid, 17
operation modes, 14
power converter switching nature, 14
power factor, 15
Grid synchronization, 403; see also AC/DC grid interface
PLL circuit principle, 404
PLL control issues, 405
for three-phase converters, 405
Ground fault, 181–182; see also Three-phase power converter
GTO, see Gate turn-off (GTO)
H
Hamming window, 538
Hanning window, 538
Harmonic component calculation, 534
Harmonic content of grid current, see Total harmonic distortion (THD)
Harmonic current factor (HCF), 76, 100, 145, 450; see also Vectorial PWM
for different number of sampling intervals, 163
exercises, 175
harmonic coefficient, 449
for modulation methods, 163
variation with modulation index, 77
Harmonics cancellation, 449
Harmonic signal injection, 376
advantages, 377
Harmonic spectrum calculation; see also Three-phase inverter
decomposition in quasi-rectangular waveforms, 79–80
decomposition in simple square-waves, 80
exercises, 93
from inverter waveforms, 78
PWM waveform decomposition, 80
vectorial composition, 81
waveform with parameter α, 79
Heat capacity, 218
Heatsink, 415
Heat spreader, 217
HEV, see Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
Higher power delivery, 381
High modulation index, 475, 477, 479
High-Pass Filter, 451
High-power converters, see High-power semiconductor devices; Power electronics
High-power devices, 61
High-power semiconductor devices, 23; see also Active gate drivers; Insular gate bipolar transistor (IGBT); Power loss estimation; Power MOSFET device
advanced power devices, 51
GTOs, 51
high-frequency, high-voltage devices, 53–54
IGBT-RC, 52
using new substrate materials, 54–55
power semiconductor market, 23–26
specialty devices, 51
High-voltage DC (HVDC), 5, 485
lines, 499
High voltage motor drives, 499–500
H-infinityloop-shaping method, 222
Homopolar vector, see Zero vector
HVDC, see High-voltage DC (HVDC)
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), 26
Hybrid IGBTs, 409
I
IGBT, see Insular gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
IGBT-RC, see Reverse Conducting IGBT (IGBT-RC)
IGBTs paralleling constraints, 411; see also Insular gate bipolar transistor (IGBT); Power converters
current mis-sharing avoidance, 411
current sharing during transient, 413
current unbalance dependence, 415
dynamic and static derating factor, 414
effective gate voltage decrease, 414
emitter connection for reduced parasitics, 414
emitter resistance, 413
gate control voltage, 413
heatsink, 415
parasitic oscillation avoidance, 414
parasitic resistances, 413
to reduce current imbalance, 413
static derating factor, 412
steady-state current imbalance, 411
temperature imbalance, 411, 414
transconductance characteristics, 413
turn-on and-off imbalances, 411
voltage-current characteristics, 411–412
IHM, see Integrated hybrid modules (IHM)
IM, see Induction machine (IM)
IMS technology, see Insulated metal substrate technology (IMS technology)
Indirect matrix converter, 476–477, 481
Induction machine (IM), 345
Inductive load, 456
Insular gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), 5, 24, 34, 101, 246, 309, 370; see also Active gate drivers; High-power semiconductor devices; IGBTs paralleling constraints; Power loss estimation; Power MOSFET device; Reverse Conducting IGBT (IGBT-RC); Zero-voltage transition (ZVT)
advantages of, 34
cross-conduction avoidance, 44
current within gate circuit, 42
deadtime, 120
derating of different, 412
digikey offer for, 25
energy transfer, 370
equivalent model of, 35
FS, 36
gate drivers, 39
gate resistor effect, 41
for high-current applications, 409
high-power single-die, 409
hybrid, 409
ideal SOA and limitations, 45
induced gate voltage peak, 44
inverter loss over time, 38
laminated bus bar at IGBT module connection, 205
limits of, 35
market, 25
maximum current, 38
modules, 204
NPT, 36
optimal design of gate resistor, 41–45
packages, 202
parallel, 410
peak voltage at diode turn-off, 43–44
performance evolution, 24
Powerex IGBT technologies, 53
principle of, 37
protection, 45
PT, 36
short-circuit in, 185
SOAs, 45
static derating factor dependence on, 413
switching characteristics of, 34
technology launch year, 37
trench gate technology, 38
turn-off waveforms, 29
turn-on waveforms for, 27
unequal voltage sharing across, 48
voltage equation for gate circuit, 42
Insulated metal substrate technology (IMS technology), 298; see also Intelligent power modules (IPM)
Integrated circuit (IC), 243, 376; see also Three-phase power converter
high-voltage, 281
for power supplies, 207
PWM control IC, 208
Integrated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT), 7, 51–52; see also High-power semiconductor devices
Integrated hybrid modules (IHM), 203
Intelligent power modules (IPM), 280, 293, 527; see also Intelligent power modules in direct AC/AC converter; Varistors; Voltage source inverter
aluminum heat-sink, 296
bootstrap capacitor, 302
bootstrap diode, 302
bootstrap power supply, 302, 303
conventional, 305
to de-energize load, 304
drawbacks, 295
dual diode bridge circuitry, 304
gate driver, 296
history, 293
IPM/IRAMS modules implementation, 505
local power supplies using, 301–304
nonlinear gate resistance, 297
other approaches, 298
packaging, 296
substrate, 296
switch-mode unregulated dc/dc converter, 303, 304
transfer mold technology, 296
VLSI, 293
Intelligent power modules in direct AC/AC converter, 525; see also Intelligent power modules in network of switches; Thermal performance
converter operation with constant DC current, 527
electrolytic capacitor, 529
hardware development, 525
IPM implementation, 527
performance, 529
PWM algorithm, 526
Intelligent power modules in network of switches, 501; see also Cyclo-converters; Direct AC/AC converter analysis; Generalized vector transform; Intelligent power modules in direct AC/AC converter; Pulse width modulation generator
current control algorithm, 501
currents calculated with moving average, 505
diode rectifier, 501
grid interface, 501
IPM/IRAMS modules implementation, 505
light third harmonic, 503, 505
multilevel converter, 511, 512
power conversion, 501
power filter topology, 501, 502
power loss distribution, 503, 505–507
synchronization with grid voltage, 501–502
Interleaved carriers, 543, 544
Interleaved operation of power converters, 424–425
interleaving possibilities, 427, 428
topologies used, 426
Intermediate DC circuit, 10; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
Inter-phase reactors, 417
connections of, 417
Inverter; see also B4 inverter; Converter; Current Source Inverters (CSI); Voltage source inverter; Z-source inverter
switching states, 171
three-phase, 12
four leg inverter, 201
voltage gain, 126
Isolation circuits, 158
J
Junction temperature, 55
K
L
Lifetime, 221; see also Accelerated tests; Power electronics; Reliability
acceleration factor, 228
bathtub curve for, 221
calculation and modeling, 228
capacitor, 226
component failure rate, 223–225
failure and, 223
failure modes for power semiconductor device, 226
failure rate for diverse components, 225–226
fault tree for power converter, 228
modeling with physics of failure, 234
multiple mechanism model, 229
problem setting, 228
system failure rate, 223
Limit cycles in power supplies, 274
Line-to-line voltage (VLL), 9, 365
Liquid thermal conductivity, 219
Load sharing, 12; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
Low harmonics reduction from geometrical locus, 447
Low modulation index, 475, 478, 480
Low-pass filter (LPF), 63, 76, 370
LPF, see Low-pass filter (LPF)
M
Manganin wire, 280
Master-slave control, 430
Matrix converter; see also Cyclo-converters; Multilevel converters
dyadic, 508
implementation with IPM/IRAMS, 509
load voltage, 511
topology with unidirectional switches, 508–511
with VSI modules, 507
Maximum modulation index, 145
Mean time between failures (MTBF), 221
Medium-power converters, see Power electronics
Memory look-up table, 250, 272
Metal oxide varistors (MOVs), 187, 188
Microcontrollers in power converter control, 254–255; see also Software implementation in microcontrollers
counter timing manipulation, 258–259
with power converter interfaces, 263, 264–265
reference signal approximation, 260
SIN look-up table, 260
SVM software implementation, 259, 260
Microprocessors in power converter control, 253–254; see also Fuzzy logic
Miller effect, 315
Miller plateau, 26
Minimum squared error, 447
Mixed-mode motor controller ICs, 245–246
m-level multilevel converter, 487, 489
3-phase converter, 493
MLV, see Multilayer Varistor (MLV)
Modulation function, 461, 462; see also Switching reference function
Modulation index, maximum attainable, 469
MOSFET device, 209
latch-up, 30; see also Power MOSFET device
Most significant bits (MSB), 250
Motor connection, 13; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
Motor control coprocessors, 265–266
Motor control DSPs, 256
Motor drives, 179; see also Three-phase power converter
MOVs, see Metal oxide varistors (MOVs)
MSB, see Most significant bits (MSB)
MTBF, see Mean time between failures (MTBF)
Multiconverter power electronic systems, 18; see also Power electronis
applications, 18
drives, 18
Multilayer Varistor (MLV), 187
Multilevel converters, 485, 511, 512; see also Cyclo-converters; Matrix converter; Pulse width modulation generator
combination converters, 490, 491
diode-clamped multilevel converter, 489–490
dual-IPM based, 512
flexible AC transmission system, 499
flying capacitor multilevel converter, 487–489
4-level converter, 488
Fuji IPM modules, 52
harmonic spectra for un-modulated, 495
High voltage motor drives, 499–500
HVDC lines, 499
m-level 3-phase converter, 493
m-level multilevel converter, 487, 489
passive filters, 492
principle, 485
semiconductor ratings, 491
three-level converter, 486, 487
voltage levels in 4-level flying capacitor converter, 488
waveform optimization, 486
Multilevel waveform, 486
Multistepped switching, 459
N
NanoHenries (nH), 188
Natural sampling method, 95
NERC, see North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC)
Network of switches, 501
New inverter topologies, 341
alternative solution, 344
B4 inverter topology, 342
DC/DC converter, 344
loss estimation, 345
machine operation, 344
reduced component count, 342
rotating magnetic field, 343
sinusoidal wave, 343
unidirectional load current, 342, 343
nH, see NanoHenries (nH)
Nonlinear gate resistance, 297
Non-punch through (NPT), 35
approximate launching year, 37
IGBT, 36
maximum current achievable, 38
principle of, 37
North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC), 235
NPT, see Non-punch through (NPT)
Null-states, 458
O
OEM, see Organization of Electronics Manufacturers (OEM)
Office of Naval Research (ONR), 293
ONR, see Office of Naval Research (ONR)
Operating temperature, 55
Operation of two-quadrant power converter, 515, 516
Organization of Electronics Manufacturers (OEM), 1
Output–input relationship, 462
Output phase voltages after LC filter, 438, 439
Output voltage vectorial positions, 497
P
Parallel converters, 409
Paralleling inverter legs, 416; see also Converter control system; Small-signal model
control system, 418
direct connection, 417
(d, q) vs. (d, q, 0) control, 423–424
galvanic isolation, 416
inter-phase reactors, 417
load types, 418
PI control, 424
Parasitic bipolar transistor, 31; see also Power MOSFET device
Park/Clarke set of transforms, 286–287
Park transform, 135; see also Space vector modulation theory
exercises, 174
Passive filters, 492
Passive injection circuits, 383
PCBs, see Printed circuit boards (PCBs)
PEBB, see Power Electronics Building Block (PEBB)
content in fundamental (z), 76
current distortion factor, 78
DF2 for regular SVM, 78
modulation index, 76
output with filter of power supply, 78
spectral function, 75
Phase control, 9
Phase locked-loop (PLL), 376
Phase voltages, 373
PI, see Proportional-integral (PI)
P-I-S controller, see Proportional-Integrative-Sinusoidal controller (P-I-S controller)
PLC, see Programmable logic circuit (PLC)
PLL, see Phase locked-loop (PLL)
Power conversion, 501
Power converters, 1, 89, 501; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD); Grid interfaces; High-power semiconductor devices; Intelligent power modules (IPM); Multiconverter power electronic systems; Power electronics; Transportation electrification systems
advanced efforts in, 2
core of, 8
energy conversion towards load, 364
fault tree for, 228
grid harmonics, 15
medium voltage, 7
microprocessors/microcontrollers, 253–255
motor drives, 6
peak current for compensation, 503
performance of, 279
power removal, 215
60°-wide intervals, 503
technology status, 1
traditional industrial applications, 6
working on grid application, 101
Power converters, component-minimized three-phase, 341, 360; see also B4 inverter; New inverter topologies; Z-source inverter
cost reduction, 341
dual-stage automotive motor drive, 357
grid interfaces with power factor correction, 341
IGBT-based AC controller, 346
two-leg converter, 355–356, 357
Power converters, parallel and interleaved, 409, 431; see also Circulation currents; IGBTs paralleling constraints; Interleaved operation of power converters; Paralleling inverter legs; System controller
built of high-power vs. lower-power devices, 409–411
circulation currents, 424
conduction loss, 411
exercises, 431
gate control for current sharing, 415–416
paralleling power semiconductor switches, 410
PWM algorithm selection, 427, 428, 429
switching loss, 410
zero-sequence current, 424
Power electronics, 19; see also Failure rate; Lifetime; Reliability; Thermal management
application areas, 1
circuits, 7
failure categories in, 226
power switch availability, 8
technologies, 381
Power Electronics Building Block (PEBB), 293
Power filter, conventional topology of, 501
Power filter topology, 501, 502
Power loss, 530
distribution, 532
Power loss estimation, 46; see also High-power semiconductor devices; Insular gate bipolar transistor (IGBT); Power MOSFET device
conduction loss, 47
diode turn-off, 47
switching characteristics, 46
switching-loss energy, 46
turn-off energy, 47
Power modules, 203
Power MOSFET device, 23, 26; see also High-power semiconductor devices; Insular gate bipolar transistor (IGBT); Power loss estimation
additional diodes, 30
control, 32
deadtime, 120
evolution of, 30
free-wheeling diodes, 29
Fuji device performance, 31
gate-drain capacitance variation, 28
gate drivers, 32
gate-source capacitance, 28
gate switching characteristics, 28, 29
internal structure of, 30
Miller plateau, 26
ohmic region analysis model, 27
parasitic bipolar transistor, 31
performance index, 26
SOAs, 45
transient analysis model, 27
transistor base, 30
turn-off waveforms, 29
turn-on waveforms for, 27
Power semiconductor
components, 23; see also High-power semiconductor devices
devices, 186
paralleling, 410
Power source, nonconventional, 6
Power stage for 4-quadrant converter, 515, 517
Power switch implementation, 458–459
Power transfer, 463
Preprogrammed PWM, 81; see also Three-phase inverter
advantages and disadvantages, 81
binary-programmed PWM, 87
bipolar and unipolar PWM waveforms, 82
eliminated harmonics, 84
Fourier coefficients, 85
fundamental component, 82
line-to-line voltage with eliminated harmonics, 86
for single-phase inverter, 82–84
for three-phase inverter, 84–87
Printed circuit boards (PCBs), 202, 236
Processing power, 545
evolution, 533
performance, 545
Programmable logic circuit (PLC), 8
Proportional-integral (PI), 380
compensator, 123
Proportional-Integrative-Sinusoidal controller (P-I-S controller), 395, 397; see also Feed-forward controller
compensated controller, 398
control system principles, 401
drawback of, 399
enhancing PI regulator, 398
Laplace transform for error signal, 396
open-loop transfer function, 398
use of PI controllers, 402
Protection circuits, 12; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
PT technology, see Punch-through technology (PT technology)
Pulse-based deadtime compensator, 124; see also Deadtime interval
Pulse width modulation (PWM), 8, 12, 63, 95, 131, 243, 346, 364, 418; see also Pulse width modulation, carrier-based; Sinusoidal carrier based PWM; Space vector modulation (SVM); Three-phase inverter; Vectorial PWM; Voltper-Hertz control
asymmetrical, 96
bus compatible digital interfaces, 249–250
discrete, 281
generation in three-phase system, 99
harmonic elimination and regular-sampled, 107
harmonic spectra for sinusoidal, 496
HCF for, 105
high frequencies, 106
modulator references for discontinuous, 102
module role, 243
operation in low-frequencies, 104–106
pulses on different intervals, 104
PWM control IC, 208
sampling frequency vs. output frequency, 105
sequence generation, 427
software inputs, 478
staircase, 115
symmetrical, 96
synchronized, 543
for three-phase resonant converters, 337–338
time intervals involved, 144
uniform-sampled, 96
voltage generation, 494
analog PWM controllers, 243
bus compatible digital PWM interfaces, 249–250
counter timing manipulation, 258–259
deadtime digital controllers, 253
feedback control loop, 244
limit cycles in power supplies, 274
mixed-mode motor controller ICs, 245–246
motor control coprocessors, 265–266
Pulse width modulation algorithm, 63–68, 441, 461, 492, 526; see also Pulse width modulation control; Sinusoidal carrier based PWM; Space vector modulation; Voltage source converter
to avoid shoot-through, 525
harmonic spectra for sinusoidal PWM, 496
HCF of output voltage, 496
to improve efficiency, 495
indirect matrix converter, 476–477, 481
output voltage vectorial positions, 497
PWM voltage generation, 494
quasi-rectangular waveforms decomposition, 498
rectified AC input voltages, 477, 480
sine-triangle PWM, 494
space vector modulation, 497–498
switching sequence, 495
third harmonic injection in reference signal, 494
Pulse width modulation algorithm implementation, 243, 275; see also Digital processor in power converter control; Digital PWM controllers with counter; Event Manager; Flash memories
accuracy of PWM generator, 274
quantization resolution effect, 276
resolution and accuracy, 273
Schmitt trigger comparator, 243
single-channel pair PWM control, 249
SLE4520 circuit, 249
steady-state output oscillations, 274
step-by-step motor, 245
Pulse width modulation algorithm optimization, 446
circular corona, 447
low harmonics reduction from geometrical locus, 447
minimum squared error, 447
Pulse width modulation control, 368, 441; see also Pulse width modulation generator; Single-switch applications; Six-switch converters; Space vector modulation; Topologies with current injection devices
analog controllers, 243; see also Digital PWM controllers with counter
harmonic elimination programmed modulation, 441–442
phase current after LC filter, 442–444
reference signal, 441
shutdown pins, 244
signal determination, 443
signals for logic circuitry, 444
single-channel pair, 249
sinusoidal modulation, 442
switching state selection, 443
trapezoidal PWM, 441
Pulse width modulation control implementation, 477–479, 481
glue logic circuitry, 477
numerical values for time intervals, 478, 481
PWM software inputs, 478
Pulse width modulation generator, 103, 243, 244, 518–521; see also Cyclo-converters; Pulse width modulation control
accuracy of, 274
grid voltage as feed-forward component, 520
load current, 518
shutdown pins, 244
three-phase, 245
unbalanced grid voltage, 520
voltage vector control, 520
Punch-through technology (PT technology), 35
approximate launching year, 37
IGBT, 36
maximum current achievable with, 38
principle of, 37
Pulse width modulation, carrier-based, 95, 127; see also Deadtime interval; Pulse width modulation (PWM); Three-phase inverter
component on fundamental frequency, 113
control voltage compensation, 112
Fourier coefficient relationship, 112
harmonic reduction implementation, 106–108
harmonic results for load current, 115
maximum modulation index, 97
modulation index and voltage reference magnitude, 112
motor drive applications, 101
operation limits, 120
pulse dropping avoidance, 114–119
pulse dropping effect, 109
pulse dropping interval effect, 110, 111
pulse dropping region, 111
pulse limitation effect, 110
reference function, 100
reference signal sampling, 99
reshaping control voltage, 114
sinusoidal PWM, 96
staircase PWM, 115
switching waveforms for short pulse, 109
third-harmonic injection, 100, 116
trapezoidal and staircase references, 98
triangular waveform shapes, 95
vector control operation waveforms, 119
voltage dependency on modulation index, 111
voltage gain linearization, 126–127
zero current clamping, 124–125
Q
Quasi-rectangular waveforms decomposition, 498
Quasi-resonant circuit for ZCT, 329
Quasi-resonant converter topologies, 335; see also Resonant three-phase converters
R
Radiation emissivities, 206
Rail propulsion systems, 5; see also Transportation electrification systems
Ram Air Turbine system (RAT system), 5
RAMP, 236
RAT system, see Ram Air Turbine system (RAT system)
RB-IGBT, see Reverse blocking IGBT (RB-IGBT)
RCD, see Resistance-Capacitance-Diode (RCD)
Rectified AC input voltages, 477, 480
Rectifier, 470
as current source converter, 470, 474
waveforms for, 473
Reference modulation waveforms, 466
Reference waveform, 434
Regeneration, 12; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
RELCALC, 236
Relex Reliability Studio, 236
Relex Scandinavia, 236
Reliability, 220, 239; see also Lifetime; Power electronics; Thermal management
factory reliability testing, 237–238
failure rate, 221
FIT, 221
mathematical models, 239
MTBF, 221
power electronics specifics, 236–237
software tools, 235
Telcordia model, 235
RelXpert, 236
Resistance-Capacitance-Diode (RCD), 192
Resonance
with CSI-filter assembly, 449, 451
Resonant controller, see Proportional-Integrative-Sinusoidal controller (P-I-S controller)
Resonant converter topologies, 312
Resonant snubber, 194
Resonant three-phase converters, 309; see also Quasi-resonant converter topologies; Zero current transition (ZCT); Zero-voltage transition (ZVT)
applications of, 314
exercises, 338
PWM for three-phase resonant converters, 337–338
resonant-converter topologies, 312
silicon-controlled rectifier, 311
soft-switching operations, 313
switching loss comparison, 313, 314
switching loss reduction, 309–311
system implications of resonant circuits and efficiency improvements, 312–313
turn-off waveforms, 311
turn-on waveforms, 310
Reverse blocking IGBT (RB-IGBT), 459
Reverse Conducting IGBT (IGBT-RC), 52; see also High-power semiconductor devices; Insular gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
devices, 345
RK fuses, 185–186; see also Fuse
RMS, see Root mean square (RMS)
Root mean square (RMS), 61
Rotating vectors, 457
S
Safe operating area (SOA), 45
Schmitt trigger comparator, 243
SCR, see Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)
S-D-H method, 154; see also Switching sequence
pulse generation with, 155
Semiconductor devices, 61; see also Insular gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
equivalent model of thermal system, 216
failure modes for power, 226
wear-out mechanisms in power, 226–227
Semiconductor ratings, 491
Sensors, 12; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
S-G-S method, see Symmetrically generated SVM method (S-G-S method)
SHERLOCK, 236
Shunt resistor, 279
integrated power modules, 280
less waveform distortion, 281
low-pass filter on measurement path, 281
made of, 280
sensing resistors, 280
signal from, 280
voltage drop, 281
Shunts, 279
Shutdown pins, 244
SiC, see Silicon-carbide (SiC)
Silicon-carbide (SiC), 7
Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), 9, 311, see Thyristor
Simple direct SVM, see S-D-H method
Sine-triangle PWM, 494
Single inline package (SIP), 203
Single-switch applications, 368
bend-point value, 374
boost converter grid interface control, 369
circuit with grid-side inductance, 368
converter input currents and voltages, 371
current average relationship, 374
current levels, 370
DC/DC converters, 368
double DC stage, 368
duty cycle modulation results, 375
energy transfer, 370
harmonic signal injection, 376, 377
input current theoretical waveform, 376
low harmonics content of input currents, 378
low-pass grid filter, 370
mathematical expressions for currents, 373
modulation function, 375
negative effects of input filter, 376
output voltage on input current harmonics, 376
reference signal for PWM control, 372
sinusoidal waveform grid current, 368
six order harmonic, 372
THD for input current, 376, 377
three-phase boost converter, 372, 369
ON time of switch, 372
SIN look-up table, 260
Sinusoidal carrier based PWM, 461; see also Pulse width modulation algorithm
direct transfer function, 463
output–input relationship, 462
power transfer, 463
static VAR compensator, 462, 464–465
Sinusoidal waveform grid current, 368
SIP, see Single inline package (SIP)
Six-step operation, 71–72, 137
output voltage waveforms and state coding for, 138
Six-switch converters, 377; see also Vectorial PWM
bidirectional power flow, 378
controllable power factor, 380
DC bus voltage utilization, 381
delta control of power converters, 379
to obtain three-phase voltages, 381
scalar control of DC voltage, 379
three-phase grid interface with six switches, 379
vectorial methods, 379
waveforms characterizing modulation with no-switching, 382
SLE4520 circuit, 249
Small-signal model, 421
boost DC/DC converter, 421
duty cycle to inductor current transfer function, 422–423
power transfer through boost DC/DC converter, 423
Snubber circuits, 188; see also Three-phase power converter
active snubbering, 197
active voltage overshoot protection, 197
capacitor voltage, 195
charging time interval, 195
circuit examples, 194
collector–emitter voltage, 189
component selection, 192
distributed resonant snubber, 197
exercises, 212
losses in snubber resistor, 192
maximum desired voltage, 191
moment of time, 196
regenerative, 193
resistor, 191
snubber and switch equivalent circuit, 189
snubber capacitor, 190, 191, 192
snubber resistor, 192
trajectories during operation, 188
SOA, see Safe operating area (SOA)
Soft-charge circuit, 11; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD)
Soft shutdown method, 183; see also Three-phase power converter
Soft-switching operations, 313
Software implementation in microcontrollers, 258; see also Microcontrollers in power converter control
counter timing manipulation, 258–259
time interval constants calculation, 259
Space vector generation, 466
Space vector modulation (SVM), 131, 250, 419, 444, 465, 497–498, 540; see also Pulse width modulation (PWM); Rectifier; Space vector modulation theory; Symmetrically generated SVM method (S-G-S method); Time intervals; Vectorial PWM
adaptive, 146
with adaptive compensation, 150
conduction intervals, 470
converter states, 445
current source converter, 470
current space vector positions, 445
digital synthesis, 252
displacement factor control, 473
hardware implementation of, 268–269, 270, 271
high modulation index, 475, 477, 479
low modulation index, 475, 478, 480
maximum output voltage reduction, 146
phase shift, 467
pulse generation within, 446
as rectifier-inverter back-to-back system, 470, 480
reference modulation waveforms, 466
sinusoidal input currents with phase shift, 475
software implementation of, 267–268
space vector generation, 466
space vector PWM strategy, 445
switching combinations, 470, 471
switching reference function for, 151
switching vectors, 472
third harmonics in SVM generation, 152
vectorial positions, 476
vectors selection, 467
voltage space vector generation by, 146
Space vector modulation theory, 131; see also Space vector modulation (SVM); Three-phase inverter; Vectorial PWM
application, 136
base vector selection, 133
Clarke transform, 134
exercises, 174
history and evolution of concept, 131–132
maximum modulation index, 145
orthogonal base vectors, 133
Park transform, 135
pulse width calculation, 144
review of, 131
three-phase system, 132
time interval derivation, 143–145
vectorial transforms and advantages, 132–134
zero vectors, 144
Space vectors, 131; see also Space vector modulation theory
generation of voltage, 146
Sparse converter, see Indirect matrix converter
SPC, see Statistical process control (SPC)
Spectral analyzers, 536
Spectral function, 75
STATCOM, see Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), 499
Static VAR compensator, 462, 464–465, 509–510
Stationary vectors, 457
Statistical process control (SPC), 222
Stator voltage equation, 168–169
Steady-state output oscillations, 274
Step-by-step motor, 245
Step-down conversion with ZCT, 329; see also Step-up conversion with ZCT
capacitor discharge, 332
current through output diode, 330
load current through power switch, 331
output diode turns-on, 332
output voltage and resonant period, 332
sinusoidal variation in current, 331
voltage across capacitor, 331
voltage and current waveforms, 330
Step-down conversion with ZVT, 317–322; see also Step-up power transfer with ZVT
conduction loss, 322
current through output diode, 320–321
current through resonant circuit, 320
impedance, 319
load current, 322
output diode current, 321
resonant frequency, 319
switching loss for light load, 322
voltage across diode, 319
voltage across resonant capacitor, 320
voltage across resonant inductor, 321
voltage across power switch, 322
voltage and current waveforms, 318
Step-up conversion with ZCT, 332; see also Boost converter; Step-down conversion with ZCT
step-up converter, 333
voltage across capacitor and inductance, 335
voltage across parallel resonant circuit, 334
voltage and current waveforms, 333
Step-up power transfer with ZVT, 322; see also Step-down conversion with ZVT
current through anti-parallel diode, 324
current through capacitor, 323–324
voltage across capacitor, 323
voltage and current waveforms, 325
Stochastic ripple cancelation, 542, 543
Storage temperature, 55
Stress factors, 224
Subcycle method, see Natural sampling method
Suboscillation method, see Natural sampling method
Surge arrestors, 187
SVM, see Space vector modulation (SVM)
Switched-Mode Rectifier, see AC/DC current source converter
Switching
processes distribution, 530, 531
states and currents, 434
table, 419
vectors, 472
Switching functions, 87; see also Three-phase inverter
exercises, 93
load voltages, 88
Switching loss, 410
Switching reference function, 150; see also Vectorial PWM
for PWM generation, 158
for regular SVM, 151
Switching sequence, 152, 250, 251, 495; see also Vectorial PWM
continuous reference function, 152–157
discontinuous reference function, 157–162
exercises, 175
with four states, 159
harmonic results for PWM, 156
modified space vector modulation, 160
output phase current, 162
pulse generation, 154, 155, 160
sharing of zero-state intervals, 153
spectra for PWM, 157
switching loss, 161
three-phase voltage waveforms, 155
vectorial discussion, 161
Switch-mode unregulated DC/DC converter, 303, 304
Switch operation, basic, 62
Symmetrically generated SVM method (S-G-S method), 154
pulse generation with, 156
to achieve control S/H, 430
circular chain control, 430
communication link loss, 431
master-slave control, 430
System implications of resonant circuits and efficiency improvements, 312–313
System level waveforms, 437, 438, 440
T
Tail effect, 51
T-Cube systems, 236
Telcordia model, 235
Thermal management, 215, 239; see also Power electronics; Reliability
Cauer model, 218
equivalent model of thermal system, 216
Foster model, 219
freezing point of cooling agents, 218
heat capacity, 218
heat spreader, 217
liquid thermal conductivity, 219
thermal calculations, 215
thermal conductivity of different materials, 218
thermal efficiency of cooling methods, 217
thermal time constant, 219
transient equivalent circuit and temperature evolution, 220
transient thermal behavior, 220
transient thermal impedance, 218–220
transient thermal model, 219
Thermal performance, 529
conventional back-to-back converter, 530
new topology based on multiple-IPM modules, 531
switching processes distribution, 530, 531
Thermal time constant, 219
Third harmonic injection in reference signal, 494
Three-level converter, 486, 487
Three-phase AC–AC matrix converter, 456
Three-phase boost converter, 369
Three-phase converter, 96–97; see also Pulse width modulation (PWM); Three-phase inverter
parallel connection of six-switch, 429
3-phase converter, m-level, 493
Three-phase grid interface with six switches, 379
Three-phase inverter, 12, 61, 92, 101; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD); DC bus capacitor; Harmonic spectrum calculation; Preprogrammed PWM; Pulse width modulation (PWM); Pulse width modulation, carrier-based; Space vector modulation theory; Switching functions; Vectorial PWM
basic switch operation, 62
braking leg in power converters, 89
circuit equations, 69
circulation for converter leg control, 63
control of each switch, 64
current source inverter, 434
current space vector trajectory derivation, 137–142
current vector trajectory, 140, 141
DC and phase currents, 90
DC current spectrum, 91
derating based on temperature, 90
derived from single-phase topology, 69
duty cycle with AC variation, 62
flux trajectory, 143
harmonic results, 68
leakage inductance, 142
load connections, 69
modulation index, 76
operation and functions, 68–72
output phase current, 139
spectra of different operation modes, 67
star-connected three-phase load, 68
step-down DC/DC conversion, 61
switching angles for harmonic cancelation, 107
vector flux, 142
vectorial analysis of, 137
voltage construction on load, 70
voltage-source inverter, 137
voltage space vector, 140
voltage waveforms, 139
waveforms characterizing converter operation, 65
zero vector, 142
Three-phase phase-controlled rectifier, 7
Three-phase power converter, 9, 179, 212; see also Adjustable speed drives (ASD); Flyback power converter; Fuse; Intelligent power modules (IPM); Multilevel converters; Snubber circuits
active control, 200
auxiliary power, 207
building structures of conventional inverter, 202
common mode current, 199
common mode EMI reduction, 198–201
common mode transformer, 200
exercises, 212
four leg inverter, 201
gate driver faults, 197
grid applications, 180
IC for power supplies, 207–208
IGBT modules, 204
laminated bus bar at IGBT module connection, 205
motor drives, 179
neutral point voltage variation, 198
neutral voltage and inverter operation states, 199
overcurrent protection, 180–183
overtemperature protection, 186–187
overvoltage protection, 187–188
packages for power semiconductor devices, 202–204
power device selection, 179
power distribution, 204
power modules, 203
protection, 180
PWM without zero states, 202
references for three phase currents, 501, 503
shoot through, 182
short-circuit between two phases, 181
single-switch flyback power supply, 209
soft shutdown method, 183
system protection management, 198
Three-phase PWM generation with counter, 247
Three-phase single-switch boost converter, 369
Three-phase system, 132
Thyristor, 131; see also Integrated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT); Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)
circuit, 7
Time interval constants calculation, 259
Time intervals, 467–469; see also Pulse width modulation generator
calculation of, 468
maximum attainable modulation index, 469
numerical values for, 478, 481
for SVM based on stationary vectors, 470, 472, 475
time allocated to null-states, 468–469
waveforms at matrix converter terminals, 469
Timer interface module, 265
Topologies with current injection devices, 381
active injection circuits, 383, 385
control circuitry, 383, 384, 385
passive injection circuits, 383
Topology based on multiple-IPM modules, 531
Total harmonic distortion (THD), 15, 100, 262, 363
coefficient, 76
exercises, 93
of input current, 546
for output voltage, 544
variation with modulation index, 77
Transfer mold technology, 296
Transient thermal model, 219
Transportation electrification systems, 4; see also Power electronics
automotive sector, 4
propulsion systems, 4
railways, 5
Transputer devices, 258
Trench-gate IGBTs, 309
Trench gate technology, 38
Turn-off characteristics, 328
Turn-off waveforms, 311
Turn-on waveforms, 310
U
UL, see Underwriters Laboratory (UL)
Unbalanced grid voltage, 520
Underwriters Laboratory (UL), 185
classification of low-voltage fuses, 185, 190
Unfiltered grid current, 503, 504
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS), 1
UPS, see Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
V
Varispeed F7, 455
Varistors, 187
VCO, see Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)
Vectorial positions, 476
Vectorial PWM, 131, 174; see also Harmonic current factor (HCF); Pulse width modulation (PWM); Space vector modulation theory; Switching reference function; Switching sequence; Three-phase inverter; Voltper-Hertz control
active power, 169
distortion factor vs. modulation index, 164
inverter switching states, 171
link to vector control, 147–150
loss performance, 162
overmodulation for SVM, 164–165
power transfer during transients, 169, 170
RMS of additional voltage, 173
stator voltage equation, 168–169
switching performance, 162
transient response improvisation, 168–174
voltage vectors generation, 171, 172
Vector space, 131
dimension of, 132
transformations, 133
Very-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI), 293
VLL, see Line-to-line voltage (VLL)
VLSI, see Very-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI)
Voltage and current waveforms, 318, 325, 330, 333
Voltage compensator, 123; see also Deadtime interval
Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), 404
Voltage feedback through PI compensator, 123; see also Deadtime interval
Voltage levels in 4-level flying capacitor converter, 488
Voltage source converter, 433
reference waveform, 434
Voltage source inverter, 525
PWM generator for, 443
Voltage sources, 456
Voltage vectors, 419
control, 520
Voltper-Hertz control (V/Hz control), 101, 165; see also Pulse width modulation (PWM); Vectorial PWM
circular corona, 166
high-frequency operation mode, 167–168
low-frequency operation mode, 165–167
operation within 30° sector, 167
pulse width changes, 167
spectra for different PWM patterns, 168
W
Waveforms
at matrix converter terminals, 469
for operation without modulation of rectifier, 473
for switching frequency, 539
Wear-out mechanisms, 226
in semiconductor die, 227
thermo-mechanical, 227
Y
Yaskawa’s AC7 Matrix Converter, 455
Z
ZCT, see Zero current transition (ZCT)
Zero current clamping, 124
dependence on current frequency and magnitude, 125
Zero current switching, 312
Zero current transition (ZCT), 328; see also Step-down conversion with ZCT; Step-up conversion with ZCT
drain-source voltage, 328
loss reduction at turn-off, 328, 329
quasi-resonant circuit for, 329
tail current, 328
turn-off characteristics, 328
Zero-sequence current, 424
voltage vectors generated during, 171
Zero-voltage switching (ZVS), 34, 283, 312
Zero-voltage transition (ZVT), 315; see also Bi-directional power transfer with ZVT; Resonant snubber; Step-down conversion with ZVT; Step-up power transfer with ZVT
equivalent circuit for IGBT device, 316
gate characteristics comparison, 316
gate voltage at turn-on, 315
Miller effect, 315
power semiconductor devices, 315
quasi-resonant circuit for, 317, 318
tail current, 316
turn-off process, 316
as boost converter, 357
control signals, 359
global voltage gain, 359
second harmonics in capacitor voltage, 357, 358
short-circuit interval, 359
ZVT, see Zero-voltage transition (ZVT)