- Cover
- Half Title
- Title Page
- Copyright Page
- Table of Contents
- Preface to the Second Edition
- Preface to the First Edition
- Introduction
- Editor
- Contributors
- Part I Contact Interface Conduction
- 1. Electrical Contact Resistance: Fundamental Principles
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 Electrical Constriction Resistance
- 1.3 Effect of Surface Films on Constriction and Contact Resistance
- 1.3.1 Electrically Conductive Layers on an Insulated Substrate
- 1.3.2 Electrically Conducting Layers on a Conducting Substrate
- 1.3.3 Growth of Intermetallic Layers
- 1.3.4 Possible Effect of Electromigration on Intermetallic Growth Rates
- 1.3.5 Electrically Insulating or Weakly Conducting Films
- 1.3.6 Fritting of Electrically Insulating Surface Films
- 1.4 Temperature of an Electrically Heated a-Spot
- 1.4.1 Voltage–Temperature Relation
- 1.4.2 Voltage–Temperature Relation with Temperature-Dependent Electrical Resistivity and Thermal Conductivity
- 1.4.3 The Wiedemann–Franz Law
- 1.4.4 Temperature Distribution in the Vicinity of an a-Spot
- 1.4.5 Deviation of the Voltage–Temperature Relation in an Assymetric Contact
- 1.4.6 Special Considerations on the “Melting” Voltage in Electrical Contacts
- 1.5 Mechanics of a-Spot Formation
- 1.6 Breakdown of Classical Electrical Contact Theory in Small Contact Spots
- 1.6.1 Electrical Conduction in Small a-Spots
- 1.6.2 Observations of Breakdown of Classical Electrical Contact Theory in Aluminum Contacts
- 1.6.3 Observations of Breakdown of Classical Electrical Contact Theory in Gold Contacts
- 1.6.4 Observations of Breakdown of Classical Electrical Contact Theory in Tin Contacts
- 1.7 Constriction Resistance at High Frequencies
- 1.8 Summary
- Acknowledgments
- References
- 2. Introduction to Contact Tarnishing and Corrosion
- 3. Gas Corrosion
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 The Field Environments for Electrical Contacts
- 3.3 Laboratory Accelerated Testing
- 3.4 Lubrication and Inhibition of Corrosion
- Acknowledgment
- References
- 4. Effect of Dust Contamination on Electrical Contacts
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Dusty Environment and Dust Composition
- 4.3 The Characteristics of Dust Particles
- 4.4 Application Conditions in Dusty Environment
- 4.4.1 Explanation of the Special Features
- 4.4.1.1 Covered by Accumulated Small Particles
- 4.4.1.2 Accumulative Particles Caused by Micro Motion
- 4.4.1.3 High and Erratic Contact Resistance
- 4.4.1.4 The Element of Si Causes High Contact Resistance
- 4.4.1.5 Organics Act as Adhesives
- 4.4.1.6 Corrosion Products Trap the Dust Particles
- 4.4.1.7 Difference Between Short Life and Longer Life Contacts
- 4.4.1.8 Large Pieces of “Stepping Stones”
- 4.4.1.9 The Performance of Failed Mobile Phones
- 4.4.2 Other Examples
- 4.4.1 Explanation of the Special Features
- 4.5 Theoretical Analysis of Connector Contact Failure due to the Dust
- 4.6 Future Work
- References
- 1. Electrical Contact Resistance: Fundamental Principles
- Part II Nonarcing Contacts
- 5. Power Connectors
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Types of Power Connectors
- 5.3 Properties of Conductor and Connector Materials
- 5.4 Parameters Affecting Performance of Power Connections
- 5.4.1 Factors Affecting Reliability of Power Connections
- 5.4.2 Contact Area
- 5.4.3 Plastic Deformation
- 5.4.4 Elastic Deformation
- 5.4.5 Plated Contacts
- 5.4.6 Oxidation
- 5.4.7 Corrosion
- 5.4.8 Dust Corrosion
- 5.4.9 Galvanic Corrosion
- 5.4.10 Thermal Expansion
- 5.4.11 Fretting
- 5.4.11.1 Factors Affecting Fretting
- 5.4.11.2 Mechanisms of Fretting
- 5.4.11.3 Examples of Fretting Damage in Power Connections
- 5.4.11.4 Compression Connectors
- 5.4.11.5 Bus-Stab Contacts
- 5.4.11.6 Plug-In Connectors
- 5.4.11.7 Bolted Connections
- 5.4.11.8 Fretting in Aluminum Connections
- 5.4.11.9 Effect of Electrical Current
- 5.4.11.10 Fretting in Coatings (Platings)
- 5.4.11.11 Fretting in Circuit Breaker Contact Materials
- 5.4.12 Intermetallic Compounds
- 5.4.13 Intermetallics in Copper–Tin Systems
- 5.4.14 Stress Relaxation and Creep
- 5.4.15 Nature of the Effect of Electric Current
- 5.4.16 Effect of Electric Current on Stress Relaxation
- 5.4.17 Creep
- 5.5 Palliative Measures
- 5.5.1 Contact Area
- 5.5.2 Contact Pressure
- 5.5.3 Mechanical Contact Device
- 5.5.4 Disc-Spring (Belleville) Washers
- 5.5.5 Wedge Connectors
- 5.5.6 Automatic Splices
- 5.5.7 Dead-end Connectors
- 5.5.8 Shape-Memory Alloy Connector Devices
- 5.5.9 Coating (Plating)
- 5.5.10 Lubrication—Contact Aid Compounds
- 5.5.11 Bimetallic Inserts
- 5.5.12 Transition Washers
- 5.5.13 Multilam Contact Elements
- 5.5.14 Welded Connections
- 5.5.15 Connector Design
- 5.6 Connector Degradation
- 5.7 Prognostic Models
- 5.8 Shape-Memory Alloys (SMA)
- 5.9 Metal Foam Materials
- 5.10 Installation of Power Connections
- 5.11 Accelerated Current-Cycling Tests (Standards)
- References
- 6. Low-Power Commercial, Automotive, and Appliance Connections
- 7. Tribology of Electronic Connectors: Contact Sliding Wear, Fretting, and Lubrication
- 7.1 Introduction
- 7.2 Sliding Wear
- 7.3 Fretting
- 7.3.1 Background
- 7.3.2 Fretting Regimes
- 7.3.3 Static versus Dynamic Contact Resistance
- 7.3.4 Field and Laboratory Testing Methodologies
- 7.3.5 Materials Studies
- 7.3.6 Wear-Out Phenomena
- 7.3.7 Parametric Studies
- 7.3.8 Environmental Effects
- 7.3.9 Thermal
- 7.3.10 Effect of Current
- 7.3.11 Surface Finish and Contact Geometry
- 7.3.12 Material Transfer, Wear, Film Formation, and Contact Resistance
- 7.4 Lubrication
- References
- 8. Materials, Coatings, and Platings
- 8.1 Introduction
- 8.2 Metallic Finishes
- 8.3 Properties Related to Porosity
- 8.3.1 Origins of Porosity
- 8.3.2 Tests of Porosity
- 8.3.3 Relationships between Porosity, Thickness of Finish, and Substrate Roughness
- 8.3.4 Effect of Underplatings, Flash Coatings, and Strikes on the Porosity of Electrodeposits
- 8.3.5 Reduction in the Chemical Reactivity of Finishes by the Use of Underplates
- 8.4 Metallurgical and Structural Properties
- 8.5 Physical and Mechanical Properties
- Acknowledgement
- References
- 5. Power Connectors
- Part III The Electric Arc and Switching Device Technology
- 9. The Arc and Interruption
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 The Fourth State of Matter
- 9.3 Establishing an Arc
- 9.4 The Formation of the Electric Arc
- 9.5 The Arc in Air at Atmospheric Pressure
- 9.6 The Arc in Vacuum
- 9.7 Arc Interruption
- 9.7.1 Arc Interruption in Alternating Current Circuits
- 9.7.2 Arc Interruption in Direct Current Circuits
- 9.7.3 Vacuum Arc Interruption in Alternating Circuits
- 9.7.4 Arc interruption of Alternating Circuits: Current Limiting
- 9.7.5 Interruption of Low Frequency and High Frequency Power Circuits
- 9.7.6 Interruption of Megahertz and Gigahertz Electronic Circuits
- Acknowledgments
- References
- 10. The Consequences of Arcing
- 11. Reed Switches
- 12. Low Current and High Frequency Miniature Switches: Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS), Metal Contact Switches
- 13. Low Current Switching
- 13.1 Introduction and Device Classification
- 13.2 Device Types
- 13.3 Design Parameters for Static Switching Contacts
- 13.4 Mechanical Design Parameters
- 13.5 The Measurement of Contact Wear and Contact Dynamics
- 13.6 Electrical Characteristics of Low-Current Switching Devices at Opening
- 13.7 Electrical Characteristics of Low Current Switching Devices at Closure
- 13.8 Summary
- Acknowledgments
- References
- 14. Medium to High Current Switching: Low Voltage Contactors and Circuit Breakers, and Vacuum Interrupters
- 14.1 General Aspects of Switching in Air
- 14.2 Contacts for Switching in Air
- 14.3 Low-Voltage Contactors
- 14.4 Low-Voltage Circuit-Breakers and Miniature Circuit-Breakers
- 14.4.1 Principle/Requirements
- 14.4.2 General Arrangement
- 14.4.3 Quenching Principle and Design of Arc Chute and Contact System
- 14.4.4 Trip System
- 14.4.5 Examples of Miniature Circuit-Breakers
- 14.4.6 Contact Materials
- 14.4.7 Special Requirements for DC Switching
- 14.4.8 Current Limitation by Principles Other than Deion Arc Chutes
- 14.5 Simulations of Low-Voltage Switching Devices
- 14.6 Vacuum Interrupters
- References
- 15. Arc Faults and Electrical Safety
- 9. The Arc and Interruption
- Part IV Arcing Contact Materials
- 16. Arcing Contact Materials
- 16.1 Introduction
- 16.2 Silver Metal Oxides
- 16.2.1 Types
- 16.2.2 Manufacturing Technology
- 16.2.2.1 Internal Oxidation
- 16.2.2.2 Post-Oxidized Internally Oxidized Parts (Process B 1.0)
- 16.2.2.3 One-Sided Internally Oxidized Parts (Process B 2.01)
- 16.2.2.4 Preoxidized Internally Oxidized Parts (Process B.2.02)
- 16.2.2.5 Powder Metallurgical (PM) Silver Metal Oxides (Processes C and D)
- 16.2.3 Electrical Performance Factors
- 16.2.3.1 AC versus DC Testing
- 16.2.3.2 High Current Inrush DC Automotive and AC Loads
- 16.2.3.3 Inductive Loads
- 16.2.3.4 Silver–Tin Oxide Type Materials and Additives
- 16.2.3.5 Material Factor
- 16.2.3.6 Interpreting Material Research, Example from Old Silver Cadmium Oxide Research
- 16.2.4 Material Considerations Based on Electrical Switching Characteristics
- 16.2.4.1 Erosion/Materials Transfer/Welding
- 16.2.5 Transfer/Welding
- 16.2.6 Erosion/Mechanisms/Cracking
- 16.2.7 Erosion/Arc Mobility
- 16.2.8 Interruption Characteristics
- 16.2.9 Contact Resistance
- 16.2.9.1 Summary Metal Oxides
- 16.3 Silver Refractory Metals
- 16.3.1 Manufacturing Technology
- 16.3.1.1 Manufacturing Technology/Press Sinter Repress (Process D 1.0)
- 16.3.2 Material Technology/Extruded Material
- 16.3.2.1 Material Technology/Liquid Phase Sintering (Process D 2.0)
- 16.3.2.2 Material Technology/Press Sinter Infiltration (Process D 3.0)
- 16.3.3 Metallurgical/Metallographic Methods
- 16.3.3.1 Metallurgical/Metallographic Methods/Preparation
- 16.3.3.2 Metallurgical/Metallography/Quantitative Analysis
- 16.3.4 Metallurgical/Structure/Strength and Toughness
- 16.3.5 Electrical Properties (EP)
- 16.3.5.1 EP/Arc Erosion/Microstructure and Properties
- 16.3.5.2 EP/Arc Erosion/Silver Refractory
- 16.3.5.3 EP/Graphite Additions to Silver Tungsten and Silver Tungsten Carbide
- 16.3.5.4 EP/Copper Refractory Metals
- 16.3.5.5 EP/Erosion/Summary
- 16.3.5.6 EP/Composite Refractory Materials/Contact Resistance
- 16.4 Vacuum Interrupter Materials
- 16.5 Tungsten Contacts
- 16.6 Non-Noble Silver Alloys
- 16.6.1 Fine Silver
- 16.6.2 Hard Silver and Silver–Copper Alloys
- 16.7 Silver–Nickel Contact Materials
- 16.8 Silver Alloys and Noble Metals
- 16.8.1 Palladium and Silver–Palladium Alloys
- 16.8.2 Platinum
- 16.9 Silver–Graphite Contact Materials
- 16.10 Conclusion
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 17. Contact Design and Attachment
- 17.1 Introduction
- 17.1.1 Arc-Induced Contact Stresses and Interface Bond Quality
- 17.2 Staked Contact Assembly Designs
- 17.2.1 Contact Rivets
- 17.2.1.1 Solid Rivets
- 17.2.1.2 Machine-Made Composite Rivets
- 17.2.1.3 Brazed Composite Rivets
- 17.2.1.4 Rivet Staking
- 17.3 Welded Contact Assembly Designs
- 17.3.1 Resistance Welding
- 17.3.1.1 Button Welding
- 17.3.1.2 Wire-Welding
- 17.3.1.3 Contact Tape Welding
- 17.3.2 Special Welding Methods
- 17.3.2.1 Percussion Welding
- 17.3.2.2 Ultrasonic Welding of Contacts
- 17.3.2.3 Friction Welding of Contacts
- 17.4 Brazed Contact Assembly Designs
- 17.4.1 Methods for Brazing Individual Parts
- 17.4.1.1 Torch Brazing
- 17.4.1.2 Induction Brazing
- 17.4.1.3 Direct and Indirect Resistance Brazing
- 17.4.1.4 Furnace Brazing
- 17.4.1.5 Continuous Laminated Strip Brazing, “Toplay”
- 17.4.1.6 Brazed Assembly Quality Control Methods
- 17.5 Clad Metals, Inlay, and Edge Lay
- 17.6 Contact Alloys for Non-Arcing Separable Contacts
- 17.6.1 Gold and Gold Alloys
- 17.6.2 Manufacturing Technology
- 17.6.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
- 17.6.4 Metallurgical Properties
- 17.6.5 Contact Applications and Performance
- Acknowledgments
- References
- 18. Electrical Contact Material Testing Design and Measurement
- 18.1 Objectives
- 18.2 Device Testing and Model Switch Testing
- 18.2.1 Device Testing
- 18.2.2 Model Switch Testing
- 18.3 Electrical Contact Testing Variables
- 18.3.1 AC versus DC Testing
- 18.3.2 Switching Load Type
- 18.3.3 Opening and Closing Velocity Effects
- 18.3.4 Contact Bounce
- 18.3.5 Contact Carrier Mass and Conductivity
- 18.3.6 Contact Closing Force and Over Travel
- 18.3.7 Enclosed and Open Contact Devices
- 18.3.8 Testing at Different Ambient Temperatures
- 18.3.9 Erosion Measurement
- 18.3.10 Summary Electrical Contact Testing Variables
- 18.4 Electrical Testing Result Types and Measurement Methods
- 18.4.1 Contact Resistance
- 18.4.1.1 Model Testing
- 18.4.1.2 Evaluation and Presentation of Results
- 18.4.2 Contact Bounce Measurement
- 18.4.2.1 Model Testing
- 18.4.2.2 Evaluation
- 18.4.3 Contact Welding Measurement
- 18.4.3.1 Weld Strength Measured
- 18.4.4 Contact Erosion Measurements
- 18.4.4.1 Accelerated and Model Testing
- 18.4.4.2 Extrapolation at Rated Stress
- 18.4.4.3 Increase of the Switching Frequency
- 18.4.4.4 Testing at Increased Electrical Load
- 18.4.4.5 Fixed-Gap Models
- 18.4.4.6 Moving Contact Models
- 18.4.4.7 Evaluation and Presentation of Results
- 18.4.5 AC Arc Reignition Measurement
- 18.4.6 Arc Motion Measurements
- 18.4.6.1 Measurement
- 18.4.6.2 Electronic Optical
- 18.4.6.3 Model Switch Arc Motion Control
- 18.4.6.4 Evaluation and Presentation of Results
- 18.4.7 Arc-Wall Interaction Measurements
- References
- 19. Arc Interactions with Contaminants
- 19.1 Introduction
- 19.2 Organic Contamination and Activation
- 19.2.1 The Phenomena
- 19.2.2 Sources of Organic Vapors
- 19.2.3 Processes of Contact Activation
- 19.2.4 Activation Effects
- 19.2.5 Activation and Contact Resistance Problems
- 19.2.6 Methods for Detecting Carbon Contamination
- 19.3 Mineral Particulate Contamination of Arcing Contacts
- 19.4 Silicone Contamination of Arcing Contacts
- 19.4.1 Contamination from Silicone Vapors
- 19.4.2 Contamination from Silicone Migration
- 19.4.3 Summary of Silicone Contamination Mechanisms
- 19.5 Lubricants with Refractory Fillers
- 19.6 Oxidation of Contact Materials
- 19.7 Resistance Effects from Long Arcs
- Acknowledgments
- References
- 16. Arcing Contact Materials
- Part V Sliding Electrical Contacts
- 20. Sliding Electrical Contacts (Graphitic Type Lubrication)
- 20.1 Introduction
- 20.2 Mechanical Aspects
- 20.2.1 Hardness
- 20.2.2 Friction and Wear
- 20.2.3 Tunnel Resistance and Vibration
- 20.3 Chemical Aspects
- 20.3.1 Oxidation
- 20.3.2 Moisture Film
- 20.4 Electrical Effects
- 20.4.1 Constriction Resistance
- 20.4.2 Film Resistance
- 20.4.3 Fundamental Aspects of Commutation
- 20.4.4 Equivalent Commutation Circuit and DC Motor Driving Automotive Fuel Pump
- 20.4.5 Arc Duration and Residual Current
- 20.5 Thermal Effects
- 20.5.1 Steady State
- 20.5.2 Actual Temperature
- 20.5.3 Thermal Mound
- 20.6 Brush Wear
- 20.6.1 Holm’s Wear Equation
- 20.6.2 Flashes and Smutting
- 20.6.3 Polarities and Other Aspects
- 20.7 Brush Materials and Abrasion
- 20.7.1 Electro- and Natural Graphite Brushes
- 20.7.2 Metal Graphite Brush and Others
- 20.8 Summary
- References
- 21. Illustrative Modern Brush Applications
- 21.1 Introduction
- 21.2 Brush Materials
- 21.2.1 Electrographite
- 21.2.2 Carbon-Graphite
- 21.2.3 Graphite
- 21.2.4 Resin-Bonded
- 21.2.5 Metal-Graphite
- 21.2.6 Altitude-Treated Brushes
- 21.3 Brush Applications
- 21.3.1 Minature Motors
- 21.3.2 Fractional Horsepower Motors
- 21.3.2.1 Wound Field/Permanent Magnet-Motor Characteristics
- 21.3.3 Automotive Brush Applications
- 21.3.3.1 Auxiliary Motors
- 21.3.3.2 Alternators
- 21.3.3.3 Starter Motors
- 21.3.4 Industrial Brushes
- 21.3.5 Diesel Electric Locomotive Brushes
- 21.3.6 Aircraft and Space Brushes
- 21.3.7 Brush Design
- 22. Sliding Contacts for Instrumentation and Control
- 22.1 Introduction
- 22.2 Sliding Contact—The Micro Perspective
- 22.2.1 Mechanical Aspects
- 22.2.2 Motion Initiation (Pre-Sliding)
- 22.2.3 Friction Forces
- 22.2.4 Motion Continuation
- 22.2.5 Adhesion
- 22.2.6 Adhesive Transfer
- 22.2.7 Plowing, or “Two-Body,” Abrasion
- 22.2.8 Hard Particle, or “Three-Body,” Abrasion
- 22.2.9 Motion Over Time
- 22.3 Electrical Performance
- 22.3.1 Contact Resistance Variation (Noise)
- 22.3.2 Non-Ohmic Noise
- 22.3.3 Non-Linear Noise (Frequency Dependent)
- 22.3.4 Contact Impedance
- 22.3.5 Data Integrity
- 22.4 Micro-Environment of Contact Region
- 22.4.1 Film Forming on the a-Spots
- 22.4.2 Unintentional Contamination
- 22.4.2.1 Particulates
- 22.4.2.2 Contamination or “Air Pollution”
- 22.4.2.3 Organic Off-Gasses
- 22.4.2.4 Friction Polymers
- 22.4.3 Lubrication (Intentional Contamination)
- 22.4.4 Lubrication Modes (Anaerobic and Aerobic)
- 22.4.4.1 Anaerobically Lubricated Contacts
- 22.4.4.2 Aerobically Lubricated Contacts
- 22.4.4.3 Temperature Extremes
- 22.4.4.4 Submerged in Flammable Fuels
- 22.4.4.5 Low-Pressure/Vacuum Operation
- 22.4.4.6 Vapor and Gas Lubrication
- 22.5 Macro Sliding Contact
- 22.5.1 Counterface Configuration
- 22.5.1.1 Flat Surfaces
- 22.5.1.2 Cylindrical Surfaces
- 22.5.1.3 Counterface Contact Shapes
- 22.5.2 Real versus Apparent Area of Contact
- 22.5.3 Brush Configurations
- 22.5.3.1 Cartridge Brush
- 22.5.3.2 Cantilever Composite Brush
- 22.5.3.3 Cantilever Metallic Finger
- 22.5.3.4 Cantilever Wire Brush
- 22.5.3.5 Multifilament or Fiber Brush
- 22.5.3.6 Benefits of Multiple Brushes
- 22.5.4 Forces on the Brush
- 22.6 Materials for Sliding Contacts
- 22.6.1 Materials for Counterfaces
- 22.6.2 Solid Lubricated Composite Materials for Brushes
- 22.6.3 Wire Brush Materials Criteria
- 22.7 Friction and Wear Characteristics
- 22.7.1 Friction
- 22.7.2 Wear
- 22.8 Contact Parameters and Sliding-Contact Assemblies
- 22.8.1 Contact Noise
- 22.8.2 Slip Rings as Transmission Lines
- 22.8.3 Results of Normal Operation
- 22.9 Future
- 22.10 Summary
- Acknowledgments
- References
- 23. Metal Fiber Brushes
- 23.1 Introduction
- 23.1.1 Fiber Brushes for Power
- 23.1.2 Diversification of Applications
- 23.1.3 Outline of Chapter
- 23.2 Sliding Wear of Multi-Fiber Brushes
- 23.2.1 Adhesive Wear
- 23.2.2 Holm-Archard Wear Equation
- 23.2.3 Low Wear Equilibrium
- 23.2.4 High Wear Regime
- 23.2.5 Plastic and Elastic Contact
- 23.2.6 Critical or Transition Brush Pressure
- 23.2.7 Wear of Fiber Brushes
- 23.2.8 Effects of Sliding Speed
- 23.2.9 Effect of Arcing and Bridge Transfer
- 23.3 Surface Films, Friction, and Materials Properties
- 23.3.1 Thin Film Behavior
- 23.3.2 Water Molecules
- 23.3.3 Film Disruption
- 23.3.3 Lubrication
- 23.4 Electrical Contact
- 23.4.1 Dependence of Electrical Resistance on Fiber Brush Construction
- 23.5 Brush Dynamics
- 23.5.1 Speed Effect
- 23.6 Future
- 23.7 Summary
- Acknowledgments
- References
- 20. Sliding Electrical Contacts (Graphitic Type Lubrication)
- Part VI Contact Data
- Author Index
- Subject Index
Contributors to the Second Edition
Milenko Braunović*
Principal Consultant
MB Interfaces, Scientific Consultants
Montréal, Québec, Canada
Ronald A. Coutu, Jr
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering
Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT/ENG)
Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio
Glenn Dorsey
Moog Inc.
Blacksburg, Virginia
George Drew
Delphi, CSE Technical Center
Warren, Ohio
Guenther Horn
ElConMat Consulting Associates
Richmond, Virginia
Anthony Lee
Retired former Director, Advanced Engineering
Delphi Packard Electric Systems
Warren, Ohio
Manfred Lindmayer*
Professor
Institut für Hochspannunsgtechnik und Elektrische Energieanlagen
Technische Universität Braunschweig
Braunschweig, Germany
John W. McBride*
Faculty of Engineering and the Environment
University of Southampton
Southampton, England
Kiochiro Sawa*
Professor Emeritus
Keio University
Saitama, Japan
John J. Shea*
Eaton Corporation
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Paul G. Slade*
Consultant: Electrical Contacts and Circuit Interruption
Ithaca, New York
Roland S. Timsit*
Timron Advanced Connector Technologies, Timron Scientific Consulting Inc.
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Benjamin F. Toler
USAF
Gerald J. Witter*
CEO & President
Electrical Contacts Plus LLC
Waukegan, Illinois
Ji Gao Zhang*
Professor Emeritus
Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications
Beijing, China
Contributors to the First Edition Whose Essential Input Is Retained
William H. Abbott*
Retired Program Manager
Department of Advanced Manufacturing Technology
Battelle
Columbus, Ohio
Morton Antler*d
Principal Consultant
Contact Consultants, Inc.
Columbus, Ohio
Jax Glossbrenner*d
Chief Slip Ring Engineer
Litton Poly-Scientific
Blacksburg, Virginia
Kunio Hinohara
Senior Manager
Components Plant, Components Division
Oki Electric Industry Company, Ltd.
Tokyo, Japan
Doris Kulhmann-Wilsdorf*d
University Professor of Applied Science
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia
William A. Nystrom
Carbone of America
St. Marys, Pennsylvania
Werner Rieder*d
Professor
Institute of Switching Devices and High-Voltage Technology, University of Technology
Vienna, Austria
Erle I. Shobert II*d
Technical Advisor
Contact Technologies, Inc.
St. Marys, Pennsylvania
Wilferd E. Yohe
Carbone of America
St. Marys, Pennsylvania
* Recipients of the Ragnor Holm Scientific Achievement Award for their contribution to the science of Electrical Contacts
*d Deceased
-
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