401Miscellaneous
• Verify: Build a system of tests and models to check that customer
specications are being met through ongoing improvements
In the evolution of the classical DFSS process, there is also the DCOV
model, which has gained in popularity and stands for
• Dene: Address customer needs in relation to the product or service
desired.
• Characterize: Mathematically transform the customer wants and
needs into specications or requirements.
• Optimize: Out of the possible outcomes, select the best alternative
that will satisfy the customer. This is an issue of measuring strengths
and weaknesses or risk and benet.
• Verify: Verify that what you have selected is what the customer
wants and is willing to pay for.
Levels of Six Sigma Mastery
The implementation of the Six Sigma methodology is driven by ve different
levels of experience and knowledge. Three are the actual practitioners and
two are administrative in nature. They are
• Green Belts, which are the basic levels in the structure of the Six
Sigma methodology. Individuals with this classication generally
have about a week’s training on the content and philosophy of the
Six Sigma methodology and actively participate in projects directed
by Black Belts. Generally, the projects in which they are involved are
within their primary job duties.
• Black Belts are trained for about 5 weeks in the philosophy and
advance statistical tools and methodologies in resolving major prob-
lems. Generally, they are dedicated full time to solving specic prob-
lems in the organization. They are working under Master Black Belts
to apply Six Sigma methodology to designated projects.
• Master Black Belts mentor Black Belts and Green Belts. Like Black Belts,
they concentrate on Six Sigma implementation. In addition to spend-
ing time on statistical duties, Master Black Belts help ensure that Six
Sigma processes are applied consistently throughout an organization’s
numerous departments and functions. They have an additional 2-week
concentrated training in how to teach, how to make presentations, selec-
tion of problems, and advanced methodologies for resolving conicts.
• Six Sigma Champions are individuals chosen from upper manage-
ment by executive management. Champions are also concerned with
organization-wide Six Sigma implementation as well as mentoring
402 Quality Assurance
lower-level Six Sigma practitioners. They are the individuals who
remove bottlenecks in the implementation of the Six Sigma process.
Generally, their training of Six Sigma is a week of overview of the
entire process.
• At the top of the Six Sigma structure is executive management. This
includes a company’s CEO and other members of top management.
Executive leadership determines the overall strategy for the organi-
zation’s Six Sigma implementation. They also set the parameters for
duties of more junior practitioners. They have generally 2–3days of
overall training in the Six Sigma process with emphasis on the phi-
losophy and expectations rather than on statistical tools and other
specic problem-solving methodologies.
Systems Engineering
Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary approach to design, implemen-
tation, and evaluation that holds the key to the successful development of
complex human-made systems. It can be used by both OEMs and suppliers
to have effective designs.
The classic model follows the letter V (although there are variations of it)
and is shown in Figure22.1. The V-model provides guidance for the plan-
ning and realization of projects. The following objectives are intended to be
achieved by a project execution:
• Minimization of project risks: The V-model improves project trans-
parency and project control by specifying standardized approaches
Customer requirements Customer satisfaction
Concept of
operations
Requirements
and
architecture
Detailed
design
Integration,
test, and
verification
System
verification
and validation
Operation
and
maintenance
Verification
and
validation
Project
test and
integr
ation
Project
definition
Time
Implementation
FIGURE22.1
Typical systems engineering V-model.
403Miscellaneous
and describing the corresponding results and responsible roles. It
permits an early recognition of planning deviations and risks and
improves process management, thus reducing the project risk.
• Improvement and guarantee of quality: As a standardized process
model, the V-model ensures that the results to be provided are com-
plete and have the desired quality. Dened interim results can be
checked at an early stage. Uniform product contents will improve
readability, understandability, and veriability.
• Reduction of total cost over the entire project and system life cycle:
The effort for the development, production, operation, and mainte-
nance of a system can be calculated, estimated, and controlled in a
transparent manner by applying a standardized process model. The
results obtained are uniform and easily retraced. This reduces the
requirements of dependency on the supplier and the effort for sub-
sequent activities and projects.
• Improvement of communication between all stakeholders: The
standardized and uniform description of all relevant elements and
terms is the basis for the mutual understanding between all stake-
holders. Thus, the frictional loss between user, supplier, and devel-
oper is reduced.
It is very important to note the left leg of the V, which is design oriented,
and the right leg, which is manufacturing oriented. Generally, the model is
depicted as a wide left leg with the arrow going back and forth to indicate
adjustments and changes in the design. The right leg is much narrower to
indicate the imbedded changes in the design and, consequently, much easier
manufacturing. The left side of the V-model begins with customer require-
ments and the right side nishes with customer satisfaction. What is very
important about these two characterizations is that there is a double arrow
that connects the two to signify continual sharing of information for both
compliance as to what the customer is asking (requirements) and whether
the customer is satised with what is received and paid for. Finally, it is also
interesting to note that validation and verication are in the middle and gen-
erally are shown with a double arrow going back and forth between design
and manufacturing.
IEEE (2011, p. 452) denes validation and verication in very specic
terms as follows:
• Validation. The assurance that a product, service, or system
meets the needs of the customer and other identied stakehold-
ers. It often involves acceptance and suitability with external
customers.
• Verication. The evaluation of whether or not a product, ser-
vice, or system complies with a regulation, requirement, speci-
cation, or imposed condition. It is often an internal process.
404 Quality Assurance
However, in simple terms, the essence of validation can be expressed by
the question, “Are you building the right thing?” and verication by, “Are
you building it right?”
To improve the design and manufacturing, systems engineering
encourages the use of tools and methods to better comprehend and manage
complexity in systems. Some examples of these tools are
• System model, modeling, and simulation
• System architecture
• Optimization
• System dynamics
• Systems analysis
• Statistical analysis
• Reliability analysis
• Decision making
On the other hand, early in the development stage of the design, when
the primary purpose of a systems engineer is to comprehend a complex
problem, graphic representations of a system are used to communicate a sys-
tem’s functional and data requirements. Common graphical representations
include
• Functional ow block diagram (FFBD)
• Model-based design, for example Simulink, VisSim, and so on
• Data ow diagram (DFD)
• N2 chart
• IDEF0 diagram
• Use case diagram
• Sequence diagram
• USL function maps and type maps
• Enterprise architecture frameworks, like TOGAF, MODAF, Zachman
Frameworks, and so on
Value Engineering
Value engineering (VE) is a systematic method to improve the value of goods
or products and services by using an examination of function. Value, as
dened, is the ratio of function to cost. Therefore, value can be increased by
405Miscellaneous
either improving the function or reducing the cost. It is a primary tenet of VE
that basic functions be preserved and not be reduced because of pursuing
value improvements.
The reasoning behind VE is as follows: If marketers expect a product to
become practically or stylistically obsolete within a specic length of time,
they can design it to only last for that specic lifetime. The products could
be built with higher-grade components, but with VE they are not because
this would impose an unnecessary cost on the manufacturer, and, to a lim-
ited extent, also an increased cost on the purchaser. VE will reduce these
costs. A company will typically use the least expensive components that
satisfy the product’s lifetime projections.
VE is often done by systematically following a multistage job plan. Larry
Miles’ original system was a six-step procedure, which he called the “value
analysis job plan.” Others have varied the job plan to t their constraints.
Depending on the application, there may be four, ve, six, or more stages.
One modern version has the following eight functions:
1. Preparation
2. Information
3. Analysis
4. Creation
5. Evaluation
6. Development
7. Presentation
8. Follow-up
These eight functions may be formally presented in a four basic steps in
the job plan as
• Information gathering: This asks what the requirements are for the
object. Function analysis, an important technique in value engineer-
ing, is usually done in this initial stage. It tries to determine what
functions or performance characteristics are important. It asks ques-
tions like, what does the object do? What must it do? What should it
do? What could it do? What must it not do?
• Alternative generation (creation): In this stage, value engineers ask
what are the various alternative ways of meeting requirements?
What else will perform the desired function?
• Evaluation: In this stage, all the alternatives are assessed by evaluat-
ing how well they meet the required functions and how great the
cost savings will be.
• Presentation: In the nal stage, the best alternative will be chosen
and presented to the client for a nal decision.
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