5.6. CONFLICT AS A SOURCE OF INNOVATION
Some research shows that conflict can be destructive and that it decreases group performance, but other findings point to conflict as being beneficial and conducive to higher group performance—if those involved know how to promote its beneficial aspects while minimizing its detrimental aspects.
Additionally, research shows that conflict resolution methods can have a positive effect on new product success. In other words, with conflict can come significant innovation.[]
Research has shown that task-related conflicts can have positive effects on interpersonal relations, group performance, and customer satisfaction when team members perceive cooperative rather than competitive goals and that teams benefit from conflict when they cultivate environments tolerant of diverse viewpoints.[]
As Jerry Harvey points out in The Abilene Paradox,"The inability to manage agreement may be the major source of organization dysfunction." That is, "group think" or the absence of diverse opinions and risk aversion may be more detrimental to our organizations than conflict. Some have advocated creating a "culture neutral" environment to diffuse conflict, but this is difficult and does not allow for the kinds of creativity and innovation that can arise out of cross-cultural conflict.
In fact, research by Adler and others shows that the possibilities for inventing mutually beneficial options in multicultural environments exceed those in single-culture situations because of the inherent differences between the parties—the difference and conflict itself provides competitive advantage.
5.6.1. Notes
[] Allport, Gordon W. The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954).
[] Garza, R.T., and S.J. Santos. "Ingroup/Outgroup Balance and Interdependent Interethnic Behavior," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1991, V27, pp. 124–137.
[] Avruch, K. Culture and Conflict Resolution (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1998).
[] Schoenberg, R., et al. "National Conflict Within European Alliances," European Business Journal, 1995, p. 13.
[] LeBaron, Michelle. "Transforming Cultural Conflict in an Age of Complexity," Berghof Handbook for Conflict Transformation (Berlin: Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management, 2001).
[] Schramm-Nielsen, Jette. "Conflict Management in Scandinavia" (Copenhagen Business School Department of Intercultural Communication and Management, May 2002).
[] Isenhart, M.W., and M. Spangle. Collaborative Approaches to Resolving Conflict (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000, pp. 14–15).
[] Tse, David K., and June Francis. "Cultural Differences in Conducting Intra- and Inter-Cultural Negotiations: A Sino-Canadian Comparison," Journal of International Business Studies, 1994, V25, I3, p. 537.
[] De Dreu, C.K.W., and L. Weingart. Task Versus Relationship Conflict: A Meta-Analysis. Paper submitted to the Conflict Management Division, 2002 Academy of Management Meeting.
[] Tse, David K., and June Francis. "Cultural Differences in Conducting Intra- and Inter-Cultural Negotiations: A Sino-Canadian Comparison," Journal of International Business Studies, 1994, V25, I3, p. 537.
[] Jehn, K.A. "A Multimethod Examination of the Benefits and Detriments of Intragroup Conflict," Administrative Science Quarterly, 1995, V40, pp. 256–282.
[] Simons, T.L., and R.S. Peterson. "Task Conflict and Relationship Conflict in Top Management Teams: The Pivotal Role of Intragroup Trust," Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000, V85, pp. 102–111.
[] Schoenberg, R., et al. "National Conflict Within European Alliances," European Business Journal, 1995, p. 8.
[] Augsburger, David. Conflict Mediation Across Cultures (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992).
[] Schramm-Nielsen, Jette. "Conflict Management in Scandinavia" (Copenhagen Business School Department of Intercultural Communication and Management, May 2002).
[] Augsburger, David. Conflict Mediation Across Cultures (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992).
[] Brake, T., et al. Doing Business Internationally: The Guide to Cross-Cultural Success (Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin Professional Publishing, 1995, p. 189).
[] Morris, Michael. "Conflict Management Style: Accounting for Cross-National Differences," Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter 1998, V29, I4, pp. 729–748.
[] Ting-Toomey, Stella. "Intercultural Conflict Styles: A Face-Negotiation Theory." In Y. Kim and W. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in Intercultural Communication (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1988, pp. 213–235).
[] Gudykunst, William B. Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communication (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998, p. 249).
[] Hendryx, Steven R. "The China Trade: Making the Deal Work," Harvard Business Review, July/August 1986, V64, pp. 75–84.
[] Ohbuchi, K.Y., and Y. Takahashi. "Cultural Styles of Conflict Management in Japanese and Americans: Passivity, Covertness, and Effectiveness of Strategies," Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1994, V24, pp. 1345–1366.
[] Tse, David K., and June Francis. "Cultural Differences in Conducting Intra- and Inter-Cultural Negotiations: A Sino-Canadian Comparison," Journal of International Business Studies, 1994, V25, I3, p. 537.
[] Ibid.
[] Perks, Helen, and Michael Sanderson. "An International Case Study of Cultural Diversity and the Role of Stakeholders in the Establishing of a European/Indonesian Joint Venture in the Aerospace Industry,"The Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, 2000, V14, I4.
[] Ting-Toomey, S. "Cross-Cultural Face-Negotiation: An Analytical Overview," A presentation at Simon Fraser University at Harbour Center, April 15, 1992.
[] Weiss, S., and W. Stripp. Negotiation with Foreign Business Persons: An Introduction for Americans with Propositions on Six Cultures (New York University/Faculty of Business Administration, February 1985).
[] Harris, Philip R., and Robert T. Moran. Managing Cultural Differences (Houston, TX: Gulf, 2000, p. 60).
[] Triandis, H. "Theoretical Concepts That Are Applicable to the Analysis and Ethnocentrism." In R. Brislin (Ed.), Applied Cross-Cultural Psychology: Cross-Cultural Research and Methodology Series (Vol. 14) (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000, pp. 34–55).
[] Adams, Susan M. "Settling Cross-Cultural Disagreements Begins with 'Where' Not 'How,'" Academy of Management Executive, February 1999, V13, I1, p. 109.
[] LeBaron, M. "Transforming Cultural Conflict in an Age of Complexity," Berghof Handbook for Conflict Transformation (Berlin: Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management, 2001).
[] Ibid.
[] Feffer, J. "Conflict Resolution in Korea," Conflict Resolution Notes, January 2001, V18, I3.
[] Alia, H. "Non-Traditional Form of Dispute Resolution Processes Among the Tiv People of Nigeria,"Conflict Resolution Notes, September 2002, V20, I2.
[] Moran, Robert T., and William G. Stripp. Dynamics of Successful International Business Negotiations (Houston, TX: Gulf, 1991), as cited in Michael W. Morris, et al., "Conflict Management Style: Accounting for Cross-National Differences," Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter 1998, V29, I4, pp. 729–748.
[] Rahim, A. "A Measure of Styles of Handling Interpersonal Conflict," Academy of Management Journal, 1983, V26, pp. 368–376.
[] Clarke, Clifford C., and Douglas G. Lipp. "Conflict Resolution for Contrasting Cultures," Training & Development, February 1998, V52, I2, p. 20.
[] Ting-Toomey, S. "Intercultural Conflict Management: A Mindful Approach," excerpted from "Constructive Intercultural Conflict Management." In S. Ting-Toomey, Communicating Across Cultures (New York: The Guilford Press, 1999).
[] Adler, Nancy. International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior (3rd ed.) (Cincinnati, OH: South-Western, 1997).
[] Gardenswartz, Lee, and Anita Rowe. Managing Diversity: A Complete Desk Reference and Planning Guide (Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin Professional Publishing, 1993, p. 95).
[] Xie, Jinhong, and X. Michael Song. "Interfunctional Conflict, Conflict Resolution Styles, and New Product Success: A Four-Culture Comparison," Management Science, December 1998, V44, I12, p. S192.
[] Alper, S., D. Tjosvold, and K.S. Law. "Conflict Management, Efficacy, and Performance in Organizational Teams," Personnel Psychology, 2000, V53, pp. 625–642.