F.2 Background

One of the solution directions in this case study is to solve current mobility problems by making use of technology developments. Emerging technologies could be applied to create an artifact or system that uses clean and quiet nonrenewable energy sources. The term clean here is contextual, and in most cases starts with being local emission free and with other emissions being controllable at the source such as at the production plant.

The Rechargeable battery technology is the most commonly used technology as of today, next to the ICE; it is applied in the vehicle industry to achieve the objectives discussed here. Currently, battery-powered electric vehicles (BEVs) are introduced in different fields of transportation, especially in places where air and noise pollution are to be avoided. Examples include forklift trucks, automatic guided vehicles in plants, and electric trains in mines. Recreational vehicles on golf courses and other sport arenas are well-known applications of BEVs as well. The battery technology is a proven technology with one limitation: long charging times. As battery performance improves, the performance of BEVs improves (Rand et al., 2005). The upcoming vehicle propulsion technology that addresses the problems of nonrenewable energy source consumption, emissions, and noise is the fuel cell (FC) technology. The FC technology could play an advanced role in lightweight constructions and energy storage technologies (Hwang et al., 2005). Until now, in the transport section the main focus and research have been put on proton exchange membrane (PEM) FCs that uses hydrogen as fuel. With regard to the use of nonrenewable energy sources and emissions, hydrogen is a good option in comparison to other FC fuels (Johnston et al., 2005; Van den Hoed, 2004).

The stimulus of modal shifts is the second solution direction that aims at improving the current mobility situation that is employed in this case study. Here the shifts to less polluting forms of mobility described by Geerlings and Peters (2002) are broadened: It is suggested to aim for shifts to mobility forms that as little as possible contribute to all of the mobility-related problems. This implies stimulating shifts away from car mobility, or at least away from the current patterns of using cars that often are single occupied during peak times and for shorter trips. The purpose here is to travel door to door in order to fulfill the mobility need. The need could be fulfilled with a customized vehicle or chain mobility, which is a combination of different modes of transport.

In addition to organized infrastructure and public transport, the solutions for the future lie in three different aspects:

• Niche and customized vehicles for urban situations and to extend or link the use of public transport.
• The existence and availability of multiple fuels for private use.
• Consumers' conscious selection of a particular mode of transport for a particular trip.

The organization of new infrastructures is also a challenge when the maturity of a particular fuel option is in question. Each type of fuel has its limitation or critical aspect to be accepted by consumers and also in order to fit within the city logistics. For BEVs, the vehicle charging and driving range are two crucial aspects for success. The establishment of comprehensive infrastructures for vehicle charging is prerequisite to the realization of electric mobility (Boulanger et al., 2011; Hatton et al., 2009; Silvester et al., 2009). Early electric vehicle (EV) infrastructure projects should be tested in a controlled manner before they are deployed on a large scale.