Index

Note: Page numbers followed by “f” and “t” refer to figures and tables, respectively.

0-9, and symbols

100% renewable energy scenarios
China, 818–827
Japan and South Korea, 811–818
Mediterranean region, 783–797
North America, 797–811
Northern Europe, 776–782
worldwide, 828–842

A

A1B scenario, 199–204, 201f, 203f, 204, 915–916, 916, 917f
estimated global warming impacts, 936t
grandfathering and, 937t
maximum daily temperatures in, 920, 921f
mortality factor projection based on, 920, 922–927, 922f, 926f
numbers of people affected by changes under, 928
population projections for, 921–922
concentrators and ray intensity at, 500f
flat-plate collectors, 475–481, 476f, 488
in operating collectors, 483
in stalled collectors, 482f
tower, 489f
Absorptance, 475–476, 476f
hemispherical, 477
of flat-plate collectors, 475–476
through windows, 730–731
Absorption
of light in solar cell, 443–449
of ocean waves, 154
of radiation in Earth-atmosphere system, 62, 170–171
Absorption coefficient, 49–50, 89f
Absorption cooling cycle, 502–503, 503, 503f
Absorption cross-section, 170–171, 445–446
Acceleration of gravity g, 247–248
Acceptor impurities, 446
Acceptor level, 438–439
Accident risks, 894
Accumulated present value, 864–865, 864f, 865, 865
Accumulators, 625
Acetic acid, 529–530, 530
Acetone, 545
Acetonitrile, 463
AC frequency, 420, 420–421
Acid rain, 913–914
Active cooling, 573
Active solar heating, 472
Activity coefficient, 301
Actor triangle, 912, 912f
Actual pricing policies, 858–859
Adaptation, 970–971
Adenosine diphosphate/triphosphate (ADP/ATP), 311–312
Adiabatic energy storage, 614–618, 616f
Adiabatic temperature gradient, 53
Adsorption, 80–81, 906
Advertising, 858
Aerobic process, 312
Aerosols, 92
See also Particles
albedo and, 170, 170
in atmosphere, 172
climate changes and, 170–172
effect on climate, 126–127
in joint ocean–atmosphere models, 126–127, 127
radiation absorption and, 170–171, 171, 171f
Aggregation
in life-cycle assessment, 896–900
over sites, 896–897
over social settings, 896, 896
over technology, 896, 897
Agricultural use of energy, 148, 547, 710f
Agriculture, 22
albedo changes and, 166
area used for, 711f
climate interference and, 166, 166, 915
CO2 emissions and, 154
energy use, 672–673
global warming impacts on, 708–713, 713
greenhouse gas emission impacts on, 929–930
impact estimation for, 918
integrated, 713
in Mediterranean 2050 model, 791–794, 794
modeling, 708–715, 710f
organic, 713
residues from, 553
Air
compressed, storage of, 613, 613–614
density of, 101
dust particles in, 92
turbidity of, 92
Air exchange in buildings, 664–666
Air-exchange rates, 727–729, 729
Air mass one, 222
Air temperature, 291–293, 292f
Albedo, 62, 65, 67–68, 71, 71
aerosols and, 170, 170
anthropogenic influence on climate and, 166
change of Earth’s, 161
CO2 concentrations and, 172–173
of Earth–atmosphere system, 63f, 170, 170
at Earth’s surface, 72f
greenhouse effect and, 165–166
influence on rejected solar radiation, 230
of land surfaces, 71, 72f
overgrazing and, 166
top of atmosphere, 63f
of water surface, 71, 72f
white Earth state, 163–166
Alcohol fermentation, 546–551
energy balance of, 548–549, 548f
Algae, 332, 336, 342f
Alkaline cells, 512, 625
Alkaline electrolyte batteries, 628
Alternating current (AC), 572, 573–574
DC conversion losses, 574
line losses, 572–573
superconducting line losses, 574
transmission, 574
Altitude
particle density and, 82, 83f
temperature, pressure, and density variations by, 80f, 81f
Ammonia (NH3), 154, 156, 172
biogas production and, 531
white Earth state and, 165–166
Ammoniated salts, 599
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), 155
Amorphous solar cells, 457–459, 458f, 945
Amylose, 553, 554f
Anaerobic digestion, 529, 529, 530f
Anaerobic fermentation, 529, 532–533, 545
Anaerobic process, 529, 545, 638
Angular distributions of light, 91
Angular momentum, in atmosphere, 105, 105, 106–107, 106f, 107, 107f, 111, 113f
Angular momentum transport, 105, 107f
Annual precipitation
in 1995, 116f
average rates of, 111–113, 114f
Annuity, 863
Annuity loan, 865–866, 877–878
Anode, 507, 625–627
Anthropogenic greenhouse forcing, 915–916, 917f
Anthropogenic heat flux, 32–33
Anthropogenic interference
albedo and, 166
in biosphere, 915
with climate, 157, 166–169, 915
Appropriate technology, 535f, 876–879, 880
Aquifer compressed gas storage, 613, 618–620
Aquifers, 180, 613
Aquifer storage, 586–588, 618–620
Area use, 12–14, 711f
Atlantic Ocean
average annual temperature and salinity in, 120f, 121–123
Ekman flow in, 211
Atmosphere
aerosol content and global temperatures, 170
angular momentum in, 105, 105, 106–107, 106f, 107, 107f, 111, 113f
CO2 content, 152–153, 914–915, 914f, 915
energy conversion processes in, 107–108, 193–194
gaseous constituents of, 80, 82f
spectral absorption efficiency of, 89, 89f
ground-level pressures, 109–110, 111f
kinetic energy in, 100
creation and destruction of, 108–109, 113, 115f
latitudinal energy transport, 98, 98
momentum exchange processes with oceans and, 183–184
motion in, 93
O3 in, 80
particles in, 80–85
altitude and density of, 82, 83f
size distribution of, 83f
particulate matter in, 80–81
processes in, 193–194
properties of, 307
radiation absorption and scattering in, 85–86, 146
sea-level pressures, 127, 127–128, 128f
solar energy processes in, 79–113
energy transfer processes, 96–99
total energy fluxes, 94–95, 95f, 96f, 97f
stored energy types in, 93–94
temperature, pressure, and density variations by altitude, 80f, 81f
temperature distribution in, 173f
vertical transport in, 176–184
Atmosphere–ocean boundary, CO2 transfer across, 154
Atmosphere-to-ocean/continent boundary, water fluxes across, 114–115
Atmospheric circulation, 102–107, 109–113
eddy motion, 106–107, 107, 111, 113f, 115f
energy in, 108, 148, 193–194, 246
energy maintaining, 146
features of observes, 102–107
general models for, 109–113
kinetic energy in, 148
Atmospheric electricity, 307–308, 307f
Atmospheric fixation, 156
Atmospheric heat source function, 189–191
Atmospheric motion
describing, 100–101
friction and, 93, 100, 113
scales of, 101, 107–108
time averaging, 101–102
Atomic number, 438
Atoms
energy bands, 435–436, 436, 437f, 438, 438, 439f
in semiconductors, 434
lattice arrangements of, 434–435, 437–438, 438
Attenuation of solar radiation, 683
Auctions, 881
Augmenters
for ducted rotors, 417, 419f
for wind turbines, 414–415, 419f
Availability of power, 280, 766, 766, 977
Available potential energy, 148, 246
Avogadro’s number NA, 48
Axial interference factor, 384, 412
Azimuth angle, 219–221

B

B2 scenario, 965–966
Backcasting, 721
Back–payment on loan, See Cost evaluation, Cost profile
Bacterial photosynthesis, 332–333
Balance of foreign debts, 874
Balance of foreign payments, 874, 874–875
Band theory, 436
Base load, 764
Base-load power units, 753, 755
wind power operating as, 764
Basic needs, 659
Batteries, 505–507, 511, 625–632
alkaline electrolyte, 628
characteristics of, 626t
dialytic, 517–518, 517f, 518f
electrodes in, 625–627
energy storage with, 625–632
flow, 631–632
high-temperature, 628–629
in hybrid vehicles, 512
lead–acid, 625, 625, 627–628
lithium-ion, 629–631, 629f
lithium-oxygen, 630, 630f
lithium–polymer, 630
nickel–cadmium, 625
primary, 505–507, 625
regenerative, 505–507
secondary, 505–507, 625
status of technology, 974
Benson-Bassham-Calvin cycle, 313–314
Benzo(a)pyrene, 524–525
Bernoulli’s theorem, 363–364, 384
Betz limit, 413, 414–415, 418
Bi-angular reflectance, 228–229
Bias, of semiconductor junction, 443
Bi-gas process, 541
Big Bang theory, 59, 305–306
Bioenergy conversion processes, 519–554
status of technology, 972
Biofuels, 5
centralized, 718, 720f
in China 2050 model, 824f, 825–826
decentralized, 718, 720f
first-generation, 549, 553
from forestry residues, 717–718, 718, 719f
in global 2050 model, 832–833, 834f
Japan and South Korea potentials, 812
liquid, 12, 15f
biological conversion into, 545–552
in Mediterranean 2050 model, 791–794, 793f, 793f, 794, 796f
in North America 2060 scenario, 801f
in northern Europe 2050 scenario, 776, 782, 783f, 783f
production of, in 2050 scenario, 715–718
second-generation, 553, 553
usage in 2013, 12
automotive applications, 533–534, 534f
composition of, 543f
conversion efficiencies, 536f, 538f
energy balance, 538
energy content, 543f
environmental effects, 539
fertilizer from production waste, 537
greenhouse gas emissions, 539
LCA for, 947–952, 949t, 950t
methane in, 530, 947–948
pipeline transmission of, 575
plant layout, 537–538, 537f
production cost, 15–16
production emissions, 535
production rates, 536–537, 536t
quality of, 544
sewage plants producing, 537–538
status of technology, 972
Biogas production
ammonia and, 531
nitrogen in, 531
Biological energy conversion and storage, 308–343
bacterial photosynthesis, 332–333
efficiency of conversion, 330–332, 519
green plant photosynthesis, 309–312
heat production, 522–525
limiting factors, 335–341
limiting factors of productivity, 335–341, 335f, 337f, 338f, 339f
liquid biofuels, 545–552
productivity data, 341–343, 342f, 343f
productivity in different environments, 333–343, 334f
ecological systems, 333–335, 334f
Biologically acceptable surroundings, 662–668, 672, 773–774
Biomass
anaerobic digestion of, 529, 529, 529–530, 530f
biological conversion to gaseous fuels, 528–538
burning, 522–525
combustion of, 520–527
composting, 525–527, 526f, 526f
cultivated land production of, 713–714
current standing crops of, 19
East Asia potential production, 815f
edible and non-edible, 553
efficiency of production, 332
energy stored in, 4f
fossil, 540, 545
gasification of fresh, 542–545
gasifier types, 544, 544f
hydrogen-producing cultures and, 539–541
hydrogen production from, 621
impact on food supply of energy uses, 714
impacts of combustion of, 524, 524t
in Mediterranean 2050 model, 790, 790, 794
metabolic heat, 527, 528f
methanol from, 551–552, 551f
non-energy uses, 520
non-food energy uses, 519f
in North America 2060 scenario, 797–799
North America average potentials, 799f
pelletized, 523
present production, 147, 336
rangeland production of, 718
solar radiation in production of, 147
status of technology, 972
thermochemical gasification, 540–541
unit sizes of, 523
urban refuse as source of, 523
Biomass energy, 3, 5
in food intake, 13f, 14f
in woodfuel, 14f
Biomass waste, 15f
market prices, 15
Biosphere, 147
anthropogenic interference in, 915
energy flow to human society from, 149
respiration, 154
Bitumen, 25
Blackbody radiation, 48, 52, 229, 241
spectral distributions of, 60
Black dye, 464, 464
Blade-element theory of wind converters, 401
Blue-green algae, 323, 332
Bolin, Bert, 204–205
Boltzmann distribution, 441, 443, 446, 448–449
Boltzmann’s constant k, 368–369, 446
Booster mirrors, 489–491
Boron trichloride, 945
Bottom-up models, 659, 661t
Boundary layer, 185–186
Boundary layer of Earth, 99
Bound vorticity, 394
Boussinesq approximation, 185–186, 195–196
Bowen ratio, 166, 166
Brayton cycle, 366f, 367, 372–373, 424
Break-even capital cost, 865
Break-even price, 864–869
sensitivity analysis of, 867–868
Breaking stresses, 605
Breeding of fissile material, 305
Brine, 293–294
Brine screw, 378–379
Building
solar panels integrated with, 683–684, 686f
LCA for, 946, 946t
wind-harvesting devices integrated with, 420
Building heat losses, 727, 729
Buildings, heat losses through surfaces of, 727, 727–729
Burning, 522–525
Business-as-usual scenario, 199
Butanol, 545
Butanol–isopropanol mixtures, 545
Buy-back rates, 15–16

C

60C, 464
Cadmium telluride, 945
Cane sugar, 546
Capacitors, 632
Capacity credit, 868–869
Capacity factor, photovoltaic solar power production cost and, 15–16
Capillary waves, 123–124, 703
Capital investment, See Direct cost
Capitalist economy, 853–854, 854, 855, 875, 876
Carbon capture, 30, 521–522
Carbon cycle, 152–154, 153f, 914–915
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 152–153, 153, 154, 172–176, 521, 525, 913–914
in atmosphere, 79–80
atmospheric concentrations of, 914–915, 914f, 915
in biogas, 530, 533–534, 947–948
climate changes and, 172–176, 173f, 964
climate models incorporating, 162–163, 172–176, 175f
climate stability and emissions levels, 967t
CO2-neutrality, 5
combustion production of, 522
effects of anthropogenic emissions, 914–915
emission reduction, 969
glaciation and, 162–163, 163
hydrogen production and, 620, 620–621
ice ages and, 975–976, 976f
influence on biomass production, 332
in joint ocean–atmosphere models, 126–127
modeling future levels of, 199–204, 204
in ocean, 125–129
per-capita emissions, 965, 965f, 968–970, 968–969, 968f
per-country emissions targets, 964
regional per capita emissions, 966f
sources of, 154
white Earth state and, 165–166
Carbon nanofilter stores, 514
Carbon–nitrogen ratios, 531, 532t
Carbon storage, 915, 916f
Carboxylation, 529–530
Carnot cycle, 288–289, 357–359, 358f, 366f
efficiency of, 360, 496f
as ideal of thermodynamic engine cycles, 365
isothermal expansion process inf, 362, 362
steps of, 360
Cast iron, heat storage in, 589
Catalytic gasification, 541, 541f
Catastrophe precursor scenario, 656
Catenary-shaped collectors, 498–502
Cathode, 507, 625–627
Cathode losses, 463
CdS solar cells, 459
CdTe solar cells, 459
Cellulose, 530–531, 531
decomposition, 552–554
enzymatic decomposition of, 552–554
ethanol production from, 547
flywheel disks from, 610
Centralization, 684, 685, 688
Centralized biofuel production, 718, 720f
Centralized renewable energy scenario, 836f, 837f, 838f, 839f, 840f, 841f
Centralized solar farms, 684, 685, 687f, 981
Centralized wind parks, 688, 688–689, 692f
Cereal grains, 553
Cesium, in thermionic generators, 371
CFC gases, 377
Chain analysis, 885–886, 885f, 887, 890–891
Chain calculations, 903–907, 905f
Change, marginal or systemic, 909
Characteristic of solar cell, 447f, 460
Charcoal, 523
Charge/discharge cycles of storage, 767, 768f
Chemical energy of solutions, 300
Chemical heat pump, 592–594, 595f
Chemical pollutants, 31
Chemical potential, 301, 509
Chemical reaction heat storage, 597–600
Chemical transformation heat storage, 591–600
Chernobyl accident, 896, 942
China
average annual solar radiation, 813f
energy needs in 2050 scenario, 818–827, 822f, 823f
hydropower average annual potential, 814f
offshore wind potential, 816f
regions, 822f, 823–825
wind power average annual potential, 814f
Chlorofluorocarbons, 913–914, 963
Chlorophyll, 309–310, 310, 314, 319–321
Chromosphere, 57–58, 58
Chulas, 522, 524–525
Circulation modeling, 184–205
atmospheric heat source function, 189–191
basic equations in terms of time-averaged variables, 184–189
energy conversion processes in atmosphere, 193–194
in 4th and 5th IPCC assessments, 197–205
ocean modeling, 194–195, 195–197
separation of scales of motion, 192–193, 192f
tides and waves, 205–211
CIS solar cells, 459
City planning, 872–873
anthropogenic interference with, 157, 166–169, 915
changes in, 157–176, 521
adaptation to, 970–971
aerosols and, 170–172
causes of, 161–162
CO2 and, 172–176, 173f
in early history of Earth, 161
excess mortality from, 922–927, 927–928, 927f
food production and, 708–713, 713
glaciation and, 162–163
migration due to, 929
mortality factor and, 922–927, 922f, 926f
numbers of people affected by, 928
precipitation effects, 203f, 204
socioeconomic costs of, 856
vector-borne diseases and, 930
white Earth state, 163–166
functions, 135–136
history, 157–161
mathematical, 133–134
stability, 136–140
stabilization, 964
variables, 131–136
Climate development, 31
Climate impacts, 30–32
Climate models, 197–205, 915
approximations in, 31
glaciation and, 162–163, 163
Climate variables, 31
Climatic forecasting, 102
Climatic history, 157–161, 159, 160f
temperature trends for Earth surface, 158f
Climatic optimum, 160–161
Cloud cover, 223–224
direct solar radiation dependence on, 223, 225f
influence examples, 231–232
influence on solar radiation, 169, 244
scattered radiation and, 225–227, 226f, 227f, 230f
CNO-chains, 47, 47f
Coal, 30, 520f
chain calculations for, 904, 905f
gasification of, 528, 528, 540
in situ, 540
LCA for power stations fired with, 935–938, 939t
liquefaction, 529
power plant start-up time, 753
Coefficients of performance (COP), 368, 376, 377f
for heat pumps, 376, 377f
Co-generation, 372, 583
Cold storage, 502
Collection-efficiency factor, 717, 717, 717–718
Collector, solar, 26, 493–494, 583, 783–784
See also Solar energy conversion
Combined cycle, See Co-generation
Combined heat and power (CHP), 569–570, 907–908
Combined photovoltaic and thermal system, 738–743, 743–745
Combined power and heat producing systems, 539, 723–745
Combustion
of biomass, 520–527
carbon dioxide production in, 522
as chemical reaction, 597
estimating greenhouse-warming externalities for, 934–935
Communicating with decision-makers, 909–912
Community-size heat storage facilities, 580–588
Community size solar heating system, 583
Comparison of energy system costs, 865
Compartment transfer models, 908
Composite flywheels, 611–612
Composting, 525–527, 526f, 526f
Composting, 520–527
Compressed air storage, 613f, 614, 616f, 619f
Compressed gas energy storage, 612–614, 613f
adiabatic, 614–618, 616f
aquifer, 618–620
hydrogen, 620
Compression ratio, 374–375
Compressors, in heat pumps, 376
Concentrating collectors, 490f
efficiency, 492f
liquid sodium in, 589
photo-thermoelectric generators with, 493f
Concentrating solar collectors, 493f, 551, 584
Concentration ratio of solar collector, 491–492
Concentrator cells, 461, 497
Concentrators, 488–502
on flat-plate collectors, 498
light direction and, 497
ray intensity and, 498, 498f, 500f
ray-tracing through, 497, 498, 499f, 501f, 501f
for solar-thermal electricity generators, 496–502
Condensation nuclei, 180
Condensation processes, 159, 295
Conducting lines, 572–573
Conduction band, 438, 440, 443, 444–445
Conduction mobility, 446f
Conductivity, of atmosphere, 307, 307
of soil, 180, 583
Conductor, 438
Coniferous forests, albedo of, 166
Coning, 395–396
Constant-stress disk flywheel, 607–608, 611–612
Construction, energy use, 672
Context
LCA and choosing, 895–896
social, 898
Continental topography, 109
in joint ocean–atmosphere models, 126
Continent–ocean column, 96, 96–97
Continents, 114–129
Continuity equation, 383–384
Convective energy transfer, 52, 53, 93
turbulent, 191
Convective energy transport, 52, 177–178
Conversion of energy, 20
See also Energy conversion processes
Cooking, heat loads and, 729–730
Cooling cycle, 502–503, 503f
Cooling towers, 503
Cool storage, 502–503
Co-ops, 872
COP21 Paris summit, 963–964
Copaifera langsdorffii, 546
Coriolis force, 100, 100, 101, 185, 186, 268
Corona, 58
Cosmic rays, 58
Cost evaluation, 859
Cost profile, 864–869
Coulomb barrier, 43–44, 44f, 45
Coumarin-derivative organic dyes, 464, 465f, 466, 466f, 468f, 469f, 469f
Cows, heat production by, 527, 528f
Cropland, 688
biomass production of, 714, 714t
fodder delivery from, 715, 716f
food productivity of, 716f
fraction of area used for, 711f
Cross-section, 43, 89–90, 445–446
Cross-wind converters, 410–415
Cross wind–induced velocity, 411f, 412
Cu2S–CdS solar cells, 447, 447f
Cultivated land, 713–714
Currency exchange rates, 852
Current power variability, 266–271, 268f, 269f, 269f, 270f
Currents
conversion of energy in, See Turbines
formation by waves, 210
geographical distribution, 266
in oceans, 265–271, 265f, 266f, 267f, 267f
current power variability, 266–271, 268f, 269f, 269f, 270f
power duration curves, 270f
power in, 266–271
Cusp collectors, 489–491
Cyanobacteria, 313f, 325–327
Cyclic processes, 359, 505
Cytochrome, 310–311, 313–314

D

DALYs, 930, 931f, 932, 933f
Dam building, 271
Darcy, 618–620
Dark current, 443
Darrieus rotor, 410, 410–414, 413
Darrieus-type converters, 410–414, 413f, 414f
DC–AC conversion, 573–574
DEA Wave Program, 427
Decentralization of energy supply, 688
scenario for, 682–718
Decentralized biofuel production, 718, 720f
Decentralized heating, 569–570
Decentralized solar generation, 981
Decentralized wind power, 688, 689, 691f, 692f
Decision-makers, communicating with, 909–912
Decision-making, process of, 912, 912f
Declination, 60–61
Deforestation, 81–82, 274
Deglaciation, 975–976
Dehydrogenation, 529–530
Demand elasticity, 857
Demand for energy, See Energy demand, Load distribution
Demand modeling
energy, 659
for LCA, 907
Demands, 649
Demand scenarios
construction of, 653–682
end-use precursor scenarios, 654
intermediary system efficiency, 657–658
load structure, 658–682
Denitrification, 156, 156–157
Denitrifying bacteria, 156
Density-averaging method, 185
Depletion of resources, See Recycling of materials
Depreciation, See Cost evaluation
Deregulation, 880–881
Derived energy needs, 666, 673, 673
Desertification, 166
Desert regions, ambient temperatures in, 502
Deuterium, 19
Development and energy use/supply, 25, 30
Development impacts, 893
Diabatic heating, 189–191, 189f, 191
height and latitude distribution of, 189f
Dialytic battery, 517–518, 517f, 518f
Diborane, 945
Diesel cycle, 366f, 367, 544
Diffuse reflection, 67–68, 228
Diffusion equation, 176–177, 296–297, 583–584
Diffusion parameter, 177–178
See also Eddy diffusion parameter
Dimethylcarbonate, 629
Dinosaurs, 161
Direct cost, 859–860, 883–884, 980
Direct current (DC), 572, 573–574
AC conversion losses, 574
Direct current transmission, 572
Direct energy conversion, See Energy conversion processes, principles of
Direct health impacts of warming, 918–929
Direct hydrogenation, of coal, 529
Direct light storage, 632–634
Direct methanol PEM fuel cell, 514–515
Direct photosynthetic production of hydrocarbons, 546
Direct radiation, 67, 67, 219–224, 234, 235–236
estimates for scenario construction, 683
Direct solar energy, 219–246
dependence on turbidity and cloud cover, 223–224, 224f, 225f, 227f
direct solar radiation, 219–224
Direct solar radiation, 219–224
geographical distribution of, 244
long-wavelength radiation, 239–243
inclined surfaces and, 241–243, 241f, 242f
power distribution curves, 244–246
scattered radiation, 225–227, 226f, 227f, 230f
short-wavelength radiation, 227–239, 231f, 232f, 233f, 233f, 234f, 235f
average behavior of, 230–234
inclined surfaces, 235–239, 236f, 237f, 238f, 238f
reflected radiation, 228–230, 230f
turbidity and cloud cover dependence, 223, 223–224, 224f, 225f, 227f
variability of, 243–246, 243f, 244f
Direct subsidies, 877–878
Direct thermoelectric conversion, 368–372
thermionic generators, 371–372
thermoelectric generators, 368–370, 368f
Discrete time simulation, 652–653
Diseconomies, 678, 856
Dispatch optimization, 653
Dispersion models, 908, 908
Distillation, 505
Distribution and service sector, energy use, 673
Distribution key for profits, 876–877
Distribution problems, in economic theory, 857–858
District heating, 569–572, 583, 973
District heating lines, 569–572, 571f
Diurnal temperature variations, 502, 502
Donor level, 438
Donor solvent process, 529
Doping of semiconductor material, 439–440
Double-counting problem, 887, 887–888
Downdraft gasifiers, 544, 544f
Drag forces, 105, 386–387, 392, 418
Drainage basin, 271
Draught animals, energy delivered by, 27–28
Driven cell, 505–507, 511
Drug resistance, 930
Drying, by sun, 522
Dry rock heat accumulation, 294
Dry steppe, 166
Ducted rotors, 415–417, 416f
See also Turbines
Ducted rotors wind turbines, 415–417
Dust particles, 81–82
in air, 92

E

Earth
albedo at surface of, 72f
atmosphere, solar energy processes in, 79–113
coordinates in, 61f
disposition of solar radiation at, 59–79, 70f
in atmosphere, 71–73
at surface, 67–79
at top of atmosphere, 60–66, 62f, 63f, 64f
energy cycle of, 142–176
energy and matter flows, 144–157
undisturbed, 144–148, 150f
energy of, 19, 19
energy of materials forming, 19
gravitational energy of, 19
heat energy in, 19
kinetic energy of, 19
processes near surface of, 79–142
radiation sources, 58, 59f
recoverable chemical and nuclear energy of, 19
solar energy processes near surface of, 79–142
solar radiation and, 20, 58–59
in atmosphere, 71–73
penetration of, 78–79
at surface, 67–79
at top of atmosphere, 60–66, 62f, 63f, 64f
variations in, 73–78, 74f, 75f, 76f, 77f, 77f, 78f
surface re-radiation from, 146
surface temperature, history, 158f, 159, 160f, 164f, 165–166, 167, 171–172, 175f
white state, 163–166
Earth–atmosphere system
average solar flux for, 32–33
meta-stability of, 31–32
net energy flux components, 98, 99f
radiation absorbed by, 62
radiation equilibrium, 62
vertical energy transport in boundary layer of, 99–100
East Asia
average annual solar radiation, 813f
average annual wind power potential, 812, 814f
biomass production potentials, 815f
hydropower average annual potential, 812, 814f
Ecological food and hygiene products, 971
Ecological sustainability, 971–977
Ecological systems, 333–335, 334f
productivity, 333–335, 334f
stability of, 333–334
Economic activity
local and national economies, 872–879
regional and global economy, 879–880
social welfare and, 30
Economic assessment, 876
of energy systems, 657–658, 890–891
Economic framework for energy systems, 851–871
Economic growth, 852
Economic impacts, 891–892
Economic theory, 852–859
actual pricing policies, 858–859
cost profiles and break-even prices, 864–869
direct cost and inflation, 859–860
distribution problems in, 857–858
indirect economics, 869–871
interest and present value, 860–864
neoclassical, 857, 857–858
net present value, 862–864
production planning, 854–857
Economy of scale, 872–879
Ecosystems
estimation of impacts on, 918
greenhouse gas emission impacts on, 929–930
Eddies
large-scale transport by, 185
Eddy diffusion coefficient, 107
Eddy diffusion parameter, 177–178, 178–179, 339
Eddy motion, 106–107, 107, 108, 111, 113f, 115f
Eddy transport term, 185
Eddy viscosity, 185–186
See also Eddy diffusion parameter
Eddy viscosity parameter, 185–186
Education, energy use and, 672
Eem period, 22, 23t
Effective interest rate, 860
Efficiency
of biogas conversion, 536f, 538f
of biological conversion and storage, 330–332
of concentrating collectors, 492f
of energy conversion devices, 363–365, 363f
of energy usage, 675–678
first law, 364–365
of fuel cells, 509–510
intermediary system, 657–658
of photo-thermoelectric converters, 495, 496f
of photovoltaic conversion, 460, 461, 684
of production from livestock, 715
of rangeland and livestock, 715, 719f
second law, 365, 382
of solar cells
doping parameters and, 454, 455f
electrical, 460, 461
operating temperature and, 451, 452, 452f
storage-cycle, 765f, 767
of wind turbines
curves for, 700f
wind speed and, 698, 698, 700f
Efficiency scenarios, 773–776
Ekman flow, 211
Ekman spiral, 254
Elasticity of demand, 858–859
Elastomers, 546, 611–612
Electrical conductors, 438
Electrical insulators, 438
Electrical power generation, 420–421
See also Photovoltaic conversion
biogas in, 533–534, 533f
ocean salinity gradient conversion for, 517–519
radiant, 574–575
solar-thermal, 488–502, 493
Electrical power transmission, 572–573, 881, 882, 882
intercontinental, 574
normal conducting lines, 572–573
in North America 2060 scenario, 807–808, 810, 810–811, 811f
offshore issues, 573–575
superconducting lines for, 574–575
Electric field, 424–425
Electricity
atmospheric, 307–308, 307f
green, 971
Electricity production
geothermal, 378–381
hydro- and tidal power, 421–424
photovoltaic, 683–685
quality of wind-produced electricity, 685–708
solar thermal, 472–488, 493
wave energy based, 426–434
wind turbine/synchronous d.c. generator, 689–694
with use of ocean thermal gradients, 288–291
with use of salinity gradients, 300–303, 517–519
Electricity usage, time distribution of, 422–423, 774
Electric transmission, See Energy transmission
Electrochemical cells, 517–518, 627f
Electrochemical energy conversion, 505–519, 516–519
Electrodes, 507, 507–508
in batteries, 625–627
potential in fuel cells, 510–511, 510f
in solid electrolyte cells, 516
Electrolysis, 511, 511, 621, 621–622, 621, 622
LCA for, 953t
Electrolyte, 625–627, 628
Electromagnetic radiation, in Sun, 50
Electromotive force, 509
Electron density difference, 469f
Electron holes, 438–439
Electrons
energy bands, 436, 438, 438, 439f
energy levels, 435, 436f, 438, 438–439, 441f
movement in solids of, 434–435
orbitals, 434–435, 437f
potentials, 434–435, 437
spin states, 437
Electrostatic filters, 524
Electrostatic interactions, 48
Elevated water storage, 271–274
Emission current of electrons, 371–372
Emission data, 895
Emission scenarios, 199, 199, 201f, 203f, 661, 915
See also A1B scenario, B2 scenario
Emittance, 239, 475–476, 734
hemispherical, 239
Employment, 875–876
Employment factor, 875, 875, 875–876, 876
End-use energy, 649, 674–679, 675t, 676f
demands, 658, 661t
categories of, 660
estimated, for 1994, 663t
End-use of energy, 24f, 649, 658, 661t, 663t, 674–679, 678f
End-use precursor scenarios, 654–656
Energy
See also specific sources
geothermal flows and stored, 293–300
Energy accounting, 870, 870
Energy analysis, 870–871
scale of, 871–883
Energy and matter flows
circulation modeling, 184–205
vertical transport in atmosphere, 176–184
Energy balance
of alcohol fermentation, 548–549, 548f
biogas and, 538
of ethanol, 550
Energy bands, 435–436, 436, 437f, 438, 438, 439f
in semiconductors, 434
in solids, 435–436, 436
Energy collection
from focusing systems, 491–493
spectral efficiency, 450–451, 451f
Energy conservation, law of, 100
accounting analysis, 870–871
atmospheric processes, 107–108, 193–194
basic principles, 357–365
device efficiency, 363–365, 363f
irreversible thermodynamics, 360–362
efficiency of, 330–332, 363–365, 552
for food alone, 27
general principles, 357–368
human society uses of, 149, 149
principles of, 357–365
process types, 357, 358t
heat energy, 368–381
mechanical energy, 381–434
quasi-steady-state approximations of, 652, 682
system aspects of, See Energy supply systems
thermodynamic engine cycles, 365–368
time fluctuations in, 651–652
trends in, 26, 26–27, 26f, 27f
waste heat from, 149–151
Energy costs, 866, 866f, 867
break-even capital cost, 865
capital, 865, 865
production, 865
Energy cycle, 21, 42, 142–176
of Earth, 142–176
human interference with, 149–152, 151f
man’s interference with, 149–152, 167–168
undisturbed, 144–148, 150f
Energy demand, 653–654, 658
in China 2050 model, 821–823, 822f, 823f, 823f
demand scenarios, 653–682
employment and, 875–876
end-use, 654–656, 658, 660, 661t
global, 828
in Japan and South Korea 2050 model, 811–818, 815–817, 816f
in Mediterranean 2050 model, 794, 795f
modeling, 659
in North America 2060 scenario, 802f, 802f, 803–806, 803f
Energy efficiency, 199, 199
See also Efficiency, of energy usage
Energy exchange
atmosphere-ocean momentum exchange, 183–184
precipitation and, 115, 116f
sensible heat, in flat-plate collectors, 479
Energy flux concentration ratio, 491–492
Energy fluxes
in atmosphere, total, 94–95
components in atmosphere of, 191, 191f
in convective energy transfer, 52, 53
Earth–atmosphere system components, 98, 99f
human totals of, 21–22
other than solar origin, 21
solar origin, 21
wave motion and, 210
Energy forms, 12–14, 146, 300, 357–359, 368, 421, 504–505
Energy history, 21–29
Energy industry privatization, 880–883
Energy LCAs, 890–891
Energy levels, 435, 436f
Energy parks, 684–685
Energy planning, methodology of, 649–653
Energy policy implementation, 718–723
Energy production
in China 2050 model, 823–825, 823f, 826f, 827f, 827f, 828f
in Japan and South Korea 2050 model, 817–818, 818f, 819f, 820f, 820f
in main-sequence stars, 39–55, 47f
Energy resources, 19–29
future prospects, 29–30
nuclear, 30
oil and natural gas production, 30
trends in distribution of use, 28f, 29
Energy scenarios, 682–718
Energy spectrum
See also Spectral distribution
of solar radiation, 56–59
of wave motion, 275–279, 276f
Energy storage, 246, 275, 750–752, 973–974
cold, 502
cycle efficiency of, 600, 601t, 766, 771
differential equation for, 652
energy density in, 600, 601t
heat, 575–591
high-quality, 600
latent heat, 591–600
sensible heat, 93, 146, 576–577
system aspects of, See Energy supply systems
Energy stores, 20, 151
adiabatic, 614–618, 616f
annual charge/discharge cycles, 767, 768f
batteries, 625–632
capacitors, 632
capacity requirements for peak-load operation, 770f
compressed gas, 612–614
densities of, 600, 601t
direct light storage, 632–634
in flat-plate collectors with heat storage, 484–488
fuel cells in, 511
high-quality, 600
hydrogen as, 771
load structure and, 658
long-term, 771
power availability and capacity of, 766, 766f, 767f
pumped hydro, 600–635, 771
short-term, 763–765, 768
status of technology, 973–974
superconducting, 634–635
Energy supply systems, 33, 721, 723, 870, 877
cost of energy supply, 701t, 865
solar heat-supply system, 484
wind electricity systems with energy storage, 746–765
Energy system planning
demand scenarios, 653–682
global energy scenarios, 828–842
implementation issues, 718–723
local systems, 723–771
regional systems, 771–827
scenario concept use in, 649–651
simulation consistency and, 722–723
supply scenarios, 610–612
system choice and optimization, 721, 722f
time variable in scenarios, 651–653
Energy systems, 886, 886f
forward chains in, 887f
social context of, 899–900
Energy trade, 698, 811f
Energy transfer processes
in atmosphere, 96–99
poleward, 144f
Energy transfer processes, See Energy cycle
Energy transmission, 569–575, 873
by conducting lines, 572–573
as heat, 569–572
by microwaves, 574–575
by superconducting lines, 574–575
Energy transport equations, for Sun, 49–54
Energy transport processes, 93
Energy use, 20
climate impacts and, 30–32
environmental and social issues role in, 32–34
food and water needs and, 669, 774
fossil fuel industry influences on, 33
health needs and, 671, 774
historical, in Northern Europe, 24–25, 24f
history of, 19–29
human activities and, 672–674, 775–776
human relations and, 671–672, 774–775
per capita, for “full goal satisfaction”, 662t
required, in 2050 scenario, 674–679, 676f, 677f
activities, 672–674
biologically acceptable surroundings, 662–668
food and water, 669
health, 671
patterns of time variations, 679–682
relations, 671–672
relative to 1994 usage estimates, 678f
security, 669–671
space heating and cooling, 666, 667f, 668f, 676f
transportation, 677f
sectors of demand, 654, 660
security needs and, 669–671, 774
temperature distribution of, 108
trends in, 27, 27–28
for year-2050 scenario, 664t
Energy use density, 674, 776, 871–872
Energy value, 870
Engine conversion of solar energy, 372–375
Ericsson hot-air engine, 372–375
Enthalpy, 359, 363–364
Entropy, 20, 359
in Carnot cycle, 359, 362
irreversible thermodynamics and, 360, 361
Environmental heat, 3, 3–5
Environmental impacts, 32, 272–274, 285–286, 544–545, 549, 883–884, 892, 892
Environmental radiation, 59–79
Environmental values, quantification of, 856–857
Enzymatic decomposition, of cellulose, 552–554
Equation of motion, 100, 107, 185, 207
Equation of state, 54, 187, 194
Equation of time, 61
Equilibrium composition, 544–545
Equilibrium condensation model, 295
Equilibrium states, free energy and, 361, 361
Equilibrium tides, 206
Equivalence ratio, 542
Ergodic hypothesis, 141–142
of climate, 141–142
Ericsson cycle, 366f, 367, 372–375
Ericsson hot-air engine, 372–375
Escalation of prices, 863, 868–869
energy balance, 550
environmental impact, 549, 550, 550
life-cycle analysis, 550–551
socioeconomic impacts, 549
Ethanol production, 545, 550, 550–551
Ethylene carbonate, 629
Eulerian equation, 184–185
Euler’s equations, 184–185, 385
Euphorbia plant genus, 546
European Commission, 34, 908
externality calculation policies, 902, 932
European wind atlas, 685–687, 688
EVA-ADAM, 598
Evacuated tubes, 496
Evaporation process, 115, 117–119, 119f, 180
ocean salinity and, 120–121
Evaporative cooling, 503
Evapotranspiration, 117–119, 166, 169, 180–181
Excitation energies, 468f, 469f
Extensive variables, 360
External diseconomies, 856
Externalities, 856, 884, 976–977
difficulties presenting study results, 912
imports and exports and, 889
statistical value of life in calculating, 902–903
taxation and, 974–975
ExternE valuation, 932
Extragalactic radiation, 59, 59f
Extreme events, 932f, 934f
greenhouse warming and, 930–931
Extreme temperatures, impact of, 918

F

Faraday’s constant, 507–508
Fatty acids, 529–530
Fermentation, 333, 529, 532, 545, 545, 545, 545
alcohol, 546–551
for hydrogen production, 621
Fermi–Dirac distribution, 440–441, 441
Fermi energy, 368–369, 441
Fermi energy level, 368–369, 440, 466–467
Ferredoxin, 311, 313–314, 329f
Fertilizer production and use, 155
Fertilizers, 151, 713–714
biogas production waste as, 537
production of, 155–156
Fetch region, 159
5th Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel IPCC, 197–205
Fire
energy conversion rate, 22
historical evidence, 22
Firewood, 522
First-generation biofuels, 549, 553
First law efficiency, 364–365, 382, 735
First law of thermodynamics, 100, 187, 363
Fischer-Tropsch process, 528, 553
Fission energy, 19
Fission energy sources, 304–305
Fixed-bed gasifier, 540–541
Fixed price calculation, 860
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