C h a p t e r 3
Designing Interactive
- An explanation of adult learning principles
- The difference between deductive and inductive learning
- How to use the sample designs in the book
- Tips on designing effective training
How Do Adults Learn?
Perhaps the best way to understand adult learning is to think about your own learning experiences. Most people have been taught in a predictable fashion during childhood. The adults (teachers) had the knowledge, and the children (learners) didn’t. The authority figure “dispensed” the knowledge. Children learn because they trust the authority figures who say they need to learn what is being taught, or sometimes even because the children really want to learn it. Children also trust that the teachers know what they are talking about. When you were young and naïve (an “open book”), such a learning style was necessary and maybe appropriate. Adults, however, come to a training program under very different circumstances.
Adults need to be able to put new learning into a context or frame of reference based on their existing knowledge.
A major difference between the way children and adults learn is explained by what each brings to the learning situation (Table 3–1). Adults usually bring a better understanding of why they need to learn certain skills and facts. They also bring more background experiences than children, and may already have formed an opinion about what is being taught. Adults are more often used to being in charge; they dislike the lack of control they experience in a typical classroom. Trainers who use the same approach for adults as they would for children will miss the adults’ quite different outlook and needs.
Table 3–1
| CHARACTERISTIC | CHILDREN | ADULTS |
| Method of operating in general |  Are dependent and varied, with few common experiences Don’t know their own needs and are not asked Have trouble relating learning to real world Are often unable to understand relevance because of limited experiences Are often willing to try and fail. |
Are independent, yet have many common experiences Are capable of self-direction Have a high need for relevance, and will ask: “What’s in it for me?” and expect a good answer Seek out training to cope with life-change events Seek accuracy; avoid trial and error. |
| Method of operating during learning | Have a high dependence on teacher See the relationship with the trainer as a child-to-parent relationship Need the teacher to develop curriculum Learn mostly for future use. |
Learn from each other as well as trainer See the relationship with the trainer as an adult-to-adult relationship May need help defining their needs Learn for immediate needs as well as future use May need time to unlearn ideas and challenge current beliefs. |
| Implications for the teacher or trainer | Teacher will take role of expert—giver of information Teachers need illustrations that will be understood by all, or most, of the class Trainers must give frequent examples to learners Students may not have common background experiences to build on Students often enjoy “survey” courses (i.e., a superficial overview of topics). |
Trainer will take the role of catalyst—arranger of experiences, mediator, facilitator, processor, and occasionally expert Trainers need to draw on their experiences and use them to illustrate points Trainees will learn from use of analogies, similes, and so on Trainees often avoid survey courses; they prefer to focus on specific problems and issues. |
© Robert H. Vaughn
Inductive vs. Deductive Learning
Part of the difference in training for children and adults has to do with how the trainer uses inductive or deductive approaches.
With the inductive style, the trainer tells the learner what needs to be known. Delivering a lecture is typical of the inductive style.
The deductive style is also known as the “Socratic method,” named after Socrates, the philosopher and teacher who rarely told his students anything, but instead asked questions of them. Some also call it the “aha!” style of training, in which the trainer guides the learner to an understanding by posing situations and asking questions of the learner. The learners then synthesize previously known facts into a higher level of knowledge. Case studies are an example of a deductive style of teaching and learning. Most training programs incorporate a combination of inductive and deductive styles, although not always in the right proportions.
Children are frequently taught using the inductive style because of their limited experience with a particular topic, as well as with life in general. Adults, on the other hand, will only occasionally need an entirely inductive style of training. Adults may need to be trained inductively if the subject matter is (1) completely new to them, (2) unstructured or illogical, or (3) physically dangerous. The inductive style may also be best where physical damage or loss of productivity could occur as a result of the training. For example, we want to tell a participant not to wear loose clothing around a rotating machine, rather than let them find out from experience. In those situations, adults should be told the facts and the rules for dealing with them, and not left to discover facts or procedures for themselves. Most of the time, however, the deductive approach will work better for adults for a variety of reasons, not the least of which is that it involves them in the learning process. Adults learn best as active learners working on simulations or problems that they perceive to be relevant to the workplace.
Adults need to feel respected, and they may think inductive training “talks down to” them. The deductive approach to training also helps participants learn the concepts behind the facts and procedures instead of just the facts and procedures themselves. This helps them integrate new information with old, instead of trying to just add on more data. Table 3–2 suggests situations in which each of the two styles is appropriate for adult training.
Table 3–2
| VARIABLE | USE INDUCTIVE WHEN | USE DEDUCTIVE WHEN |
| Participants’ entering behavior | Learner has no (or very limited) relevant knowledge of the subject | Learner knows the facts or has experience in related areas |
| Nature of subject | Subject can be learned step-bystep, rather than intuitively
Physical safety or cost concerns rule out a deductive approach |
Subject matter permits a variety of means to an end and a logical, intuitive structure |
| Trainer’s ability | The trainer has a limited grasp of subject or not much teaching experience | Trainer knows subject and thus can deal with interactive dynamics |
| Time limitations | Circumstances dictate covering lots of subject matter in a little time | Adequate time is available for the training |
| Preparation time is limited. | Adequate preparation is possible. |
Do All Adults Learn in The Same Way?
Tables 3–1 and 3–2 highlight the differences between adults and children. But the classifications of “adults” and “children” are rather broad and subjective. Not all adult learners are the same. Humans, irrespective of age, vary from person to person and topic to topic in how they learn best. A number of models exist to describe how individual adults prefer to learn. In the past decade, research has improved our understanding of “learning styles.”
How Should I Use the Sample Designs in This Book?
Although this book has been developed to help the novice trainer and to provide lots of information on the subject of decision making, you will not be able to walk into the first class without preparation. In the previous chapter, we discussed how to assess the needs of the learners. Now, you must design a plan to meet those needs. Later, chapters 6, 7, and 8 will guide you through the various training designs that this book supports.
The most important thing at this point is to determine which parts of the training you will need to provide for the learners, get familiar with that material, and then use the suggested designs to create a training plan.
Why Is a Training Plan Important?
A trainer can’t show up at the appointed time and ask, “What shall we talk about today?” any more than a supervisor could show up in an office or on the shop floor and say, “What shall we make today?” Both need to plan. Both need to control and give feedback. Your training plan should
- ensure the training objectives are met
- keep training on schedule and on budget
- provide a reference for the trainer during the instruction (“notes”)
- document the training for organization
- enable multiple trainers to teach the same program.
As you develop your training plan, keep in mind that you want to make it as practical and viable for your learners as you can.
How Can I Make the Learning Experience Attractive to Adults?
A number of options make training more palatable for adults. Effective training is, of course, actually a lot more complicated than just following a checklist. But for now, here are some ideas that work well for training adults:
Set Positive Expectations. Keep training as risk free as possible. Many adults have been negatively conditioned by poor training experiences in the past. They frequently approach training sessions with those old concerns in mind. Adults don’t want to look foolish to their peers, so the trainer should do whatever is reasonable to establish the experience as positive and nonthreatening. The trainer creates the environment, but the participants can help develop positive expectations for the learning experience.
Use Appropriate Motivations and Rewards. Reduce ambivalence to learning. Most learning isn’t something that happens automatically or unconsciously. It’s an activity that we decide to do or not do. Knowing that, the trainer needs to clearly spell out the benefits to learning. Motivation can be positive or negative, of course. One can motivate by saying, “Learn to do this and you will enjoy your job more, get a raise, and be able to retire happy and fulfilled.” Or, one can motivate by saying, “Learn to do this by next week, or you’re fired.” Positive motivation is usually preferable, but negative motivation may also work (but expect consequences). It depends in large part on the individual participants.
Allow for Unlearning Time, If Necessary. Sometimes adults bring excess baggage to the training. Keep in mind that some people show up with good ideas and experience, others arrive with poor ideas or experience that don’t match the situation, and still others bring no relevant ideas or experience at all. When participants show up with incorrect ideas or old ways of doing things—for example, inefficient methods for doing a task—then extra time and clear reasons to unlearn must be given before the participants can tune themselves into learning a more efficient method for doing the task.
Make the Training Relevant. Adults want specific, practical, and life-like situations that will satisfy their needs and interests. Adults want to see immediate benefits from the material they’re learning. Explain why they need to learn what is being taught. Give them concrete examples of how the training will benefit them on the job. This will be easier if you follow the processes outlined in the next chapter, and if you can work with the supervisors of the participants before, during, and after the training sessions.
Use the Concept of “Just-In-Time” Training. Training that can be immediately applied provides additional motivation and a sense of urgency. Whenever possible, initiate technical training before using that new skill in the workplace, allowing enough time for assimilation and practice before the knowledge is used on the job.
Sequence the Training Appropriately. A popular book in the training field is Telling Ain’t Training. The title says it all—simply presenting a collection of relevant information to participants does not qualify as training. The data must be organized in some logical, cohesive fashion using principles of instructional design. Frequently, presenters will offer ideas beginning with the easiest or most basic and moving to the difficult or most complex. But some training may be better presented by working from the first step to the last or from known to unknown. The sequence should also allow for variations in the pace and intensity of the training. Malcolm Knowles, a pioneer in adult education, points out the difference between a content plan and a process design. The latter is much more difficult. Further suggestions on the subjects of sequencing, pacing, and other lesson design ideas are to be found in chapter 4, which covers conducting the training.
Recognize That Adults Have Short Attention Spans. Many researchers claim that adults have even shorter attention spans than children. Training works best when offered in “bite-sized chunks.” A chunk is a key piece of information, a module, a natural unit of work, or some logical subdivision of the whole to be learned.
Involve the Learners. Learning is more rapid and efficient when the learner is a participant, rather than a spectator. Learning based on the learner’s past experience will be easier to grasp and better retained.
Have the Learners Do Something or Create Something. Learning must be used for it to be retained. It should be applied immediately. A visible and tangible product as a result of the learning stimulates interest and accelerates learning. It also supports participants who prefer a kinesthetic learning style.
Speak Their Language. Participants want to feel that the trainer understands their situation. When they hear the trainer frequently speak in the abstract or use too many “textbook terms,” they will be put off, and may question the trainer’s credibility. Trainers should be familiar with the industry and jargon of the participants’ workplace.
Use Appropriate Training Techniques and Support. It would be a very poor training technique to give a lecture about art or music without also using some visuals or sound. The chosen training techniques must match the topic. Art is a visual medium, thus it should usually be taught visually. Music is an aural medium; it requires sound to support effective understanding by the participants. Another reason to use various techniques is to engage more of the senses. Learners remember what they see longer than what they hear, and what they do even longer than what they see. Using problem-solving methods and materials heightens interest and learning. How to apply appropriate training techniques will be covered in later chapters.
Ask Questions. Questions help you find out how the participants are doing, and questioning involves them in the process much more actively. But obvious questions such as “Are there any questions?” or “Do you understand?” don’t go far enough. Questions should push participants to respond to what they have just learned. This is an important distinction.
Promote Concentration. Control the physical learning environment to help the participants focus on the task at hand. This includes such things as requiring that cell phones be turned off, and minimizing distractions such as activity outside the windows or noise in the room. Vary the stimuli and pacing of the content and activities, and otherwise do what you can to help the participants focus. Hold the training off site, if possible, or limit the distractions and interruptions if the training is held on site. Also, be sure to provide occasional breaks to ensure participants don’t lose their concentration.
Tap Into Group Dynamics. A number of people working together with common interests learn faster than the same persons working alone. Adults don’t always need the input or feedback of a trainer—they can learn from peers. The trainer’s role may be simply to ensure that the learning occurs and is accurate. Besides, participants will often work in teams when they get back to the job, and encouraging this during training may have the added benefit of building bonds and interpersonal skills.
Where Do I Begin?
Designing an effective training plan will take some time to do properly. You will need to think through your training strategies. Worksheet 3–1 is a good place to begin.
Answers to many of the questions (the objectives, for example) can be taken right out of your audience needs analysis and from the pages of this book.
What to Do Next
- Review your training plan and the suggestions discussed in this chapter.
- Make some detailed notes in the training plan where you expect to use specific ideas from this chapter.
- Design your training plan.
Worksheet 3–1
Instructions: Use this worksheet to prepare for your upcoming training program. Use additional sheets as necessary.
Name of Trainer _________________ Date ___________
Training Program ________________________________
Training Design Issues
The title of the job-related training session you will conduct
This training is needed because
The person (or department) who requested this training is
The participants are expected to have this level of knowledge or skill base when they begin
The key objective(s) of the training is (are)
The benefits to the participants if they learn and apply the training include
The main points that will be covered are
Information that needs to be visualized (by demonstration or audio-visual) or practiced (hands-on exercises) includes
Points that need to be made in a conclusion of the training include The participants’ manager is expecting the following to happen as a result of this training
This group of participants was chosen because
If a similar or related training program was previously conducted, the result was
The following offices and individuals can help in preparing for this training
The level of success of the program will be determined by
Training Logistics Issues
The date(s), starting and ending times for the training will be
The location for the training program is
The number and types of participants in the training session will include
The attendees will be informed about the training how, when, and by whom?
Equipment (supplies, materials, samples, handouts, visuals and other items) that will be needed includes
Deadline dates
| Obtaining information | _____ |
| Organizing outline | _____ |
| Preparing visuals | _____ |
| Practicing | _____ |
| Previewing for management | _____ |
| Finalizing | _____ |
| Evaluating | _____ |
Other significant items to consider include
© 2004 Robert H. Vaughn