12

Power and Politics

The Key Point

Power and politics are a fact of life in organizations: To be successful, we must know how to gain power and use influence. But we also know that power and politics are often seen as dirty words. Why do these concepts have such a bad name and how can we overcome their negative connotations?

What's Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

FLIRTING AND CHATTING UP FOR SUCCESS

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

STRUGGLING TO GAIN INFLUENCE? TAP INTO THE SCIENCE OF PERSUADING

Checking Ethics in OB

FURLOUGH OR FIRE? WEIGHING ALTERNATIVE INTERESTS

Finding the Leader in You

CORRUPTIVE POWER OF CELEBRITY TURNS BLIND EYE TO PEDOPHILIA

OB in Popular Culture

TOOTING ONE'S HORN IN SPANGLISH

Research Insight

SOCIAL NETWORKS AND POWER IN ORGANIZATIONS

Chapter at a Glance

• What Is Power, and How Does It Operate in Organizations?
• What Are the Sources of Power and Influence?
• How Do People Respond to Power and Influence?
• What Are Organizational Politics?
• How Do Individuals Navigate Politics in Organizations?

Understanding Power

WHAT IS POWER AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? POWER AND DEPENDENCE

THE PROBLEM OF POWERLESSNESS POWER AS AN EXPANDING PIE

Power and politics are among the most important, yet least understood, concepts in organizational behavior. When you hear the words power and politics, how do you feel? Do you want power?

If you say you don't want power you are likely missing out on important opportunities. Without power and influence you will be less effective in organizations. Did you know that the modern computer was first invented by Xerox in 1975? But name Xerox is not associated with computers because the engineers who designed it were not able to influence Xerox executives who saw themselves as a “paper company” to adopt their innovation. Instead, as we now know, Xerox showed it to Steve Jobs of Apple, who went on to commercialize it to great success.

The point is this: If you want to get things done, you have to be able to influence others. And influence comes from power and political skill. But engaging in power and politics is not what many people think. As you will see in this chapter, the key lies in building power for yourself while expanding the power of those around you.

What Is Power and Why Is It Important?

“The fundamental concept in social science is Power, in the same sense in which Energy is the fundamental concept in physics.”

Bertrand Russell

Power is the ability of a person or group to influence or control some aspect of another person or group.¹ In organizations, it is often associated with control over resources others need, such as money, information, decisions, work assignments, and so on.

Power is the ability of a person or group to influence or control some aspect of another person or group.

Most people assume that power comes from hierarchical positions—that because managers have positions with authority embedded in them they have all the power. But this isn't always true. Can you think of a manager who was not very effective because no one listened to her, or a teacher who had no control over his classroom? When others do not comply with a person's authority that person doesn't really have power. In other words, power is not an absolute. It has to be given by others who are willing to be influenced.

For this reason, most of the power we study in organizations is social power. Social power is used to recognize that power comes from the ability to influence another in a social relation. It differs from force, which describes power that occurs against another's will. Social power is earned through relationships, and if it isn't used properly, it can be taken away. We see teenagers take their parents' power away when they don't listen or do as they are told. Employees remove managers' power when they do not act respectfully or badmouth managers to others in the organization.

Social power is power that comes from the ability to influence another in a social relation.

Force is power made operative against another's will.

Power and Dependence

Power is based on dependence. This means that to understand power, we need to understand the nature of dependence. Dependence means that one person or group relies on another person or group to get what they want or need.² If dependence can be easily removed then an individual has power only as long as the other is willing to give it to him or her. If dependence cannot be easily removed individuals have little choice and must comply.

Dependence means that one person or group relies on another person or group to get what they want or need.

Dependence in organizations is most often associated with control over access to things other people need, such as information, resources, and decision-making.³ For this reason, major organizational powerholders are usually those who have important competencies (e.g., influential executives, top salespeople, skilled technicians). Power is also associated with key decision-making functions, such as budgets, schedules, performance appraisals, organizational strategy, and the like.

Control is the authority or ability to exercise restraining or dominating influence over someone or something.

Because power is based on dependence, we need to manage dependencies in order to manage power. We do this by increasing others' dependence on us and reducing our dependence on others. We increase others' dependence on us by establishing competence and being indispensable. Individuals who are highly competent are in great demand. They are seen as irreplaceable and organizations will work hard to keep them.

We reduce our dependence on others by increasing employability. This means that if we lose our job today we can soon get another. Individuals reduce dependence by keeping their options open, such as being willing to relocate if necessary to take another job. We reduce dependence on employers by not getting overextended financially, which can make us overly dependent on a particular organization for our livelihood. And, we reduce dependency and increase power and self-control by removing another's power over us. The decision to give someone or something power over us is a choice. Sometimes the choice to remove a dependency is difficult. It may mean changing jobs, leaving an organization, or blowing the whistle. But when we allow others to abuse power, we are complicit in their unethical and inappropriate behavior.

The Problem of Powerlessness

One of the biggest problems associated with power and dependence is the perception of powerlessness. Powerlessness is a lack of autonomy and participation.⁴ It occurs when Powerlessness is defined power imbalances make people feel that they have no option but to do what others say. When we experience powerlessness we feel little control over ourselves and our work processes. Research shows that when we feel powerless we display it in our body language—for example, by shrinking in, caving in our chests, physically withdrawing, or using less forceful hand gestures.⁵

Powerlessness is defined as a lack of autonomy and participation.

In organizations, powerlessness has debilitating effects. Perceptions of powerlessness create spirals of helplessness and alienation. Think for a minute about a situation in which you feel powerless. How does it make you feel? Frustrated? Anxious? Angry? Afraid? Resentful? Isolated? These are destructive emotions in relationships and in organizations. When we feel powerful, on the other hand, we view power in a positive way. We feel energized, engaged, excited, and fulfilled by work.

Powerless people often try to regain some sense of control over themselves and their work environment. But the result can be extremely damaging to organizations (e.g., absenteeism, tardiness, theft, vandalism, grievances, shoddy workmanship, and counterproductive behavior).⁶ Contrary to what we think, therefore, the problem in organizations is not power, but powerlessness. And this means that to gain and use power responsibly, we need to work to expand the power of others rather than restrict it to a few.

Power as an Expanding Pie

The idea that social power can be an expanding pie is the basis for the trend in organizations over the past decades toward empowerment. Empowerment involves sharing power, information, and rewards with employees to make decisions and solve problems in their work. More than ever, managers in progressive organizations are expected to be good at and comfortable with empowering others. Rather than considering power to be something held only at higher levels in the traditional pyramid of organizations, this view considers power to be something that can be shared by everyone working in flatter and more collegial structures. When managers empower others, they also empower themselves by gaining a more dedicated and engaged workforce.

Empowerment involves sharing power, information, and rewards with employees to make decisions and solve problems in their work.

Although many firms want empowerment, it is extremely difficult to accomplish. It requires individuals to change their understanding of power away from it being a zero sum game. A zero sum game means one person's gain is equal to another person's loss (“I win, you lose”). It represents a belief that “for me to gain power, you must lose power.” Viewing power as a zero sum game causes you to lose power in the long run.

Zero sum game describes a situation in which one person's gain is equal to another person's loss.

This is because increasing your own power while others lose power leads to power imbalances. When power imbalances get bad, they trigger forces that rise up to take power away to restore the balance. This is known as the Iron Law of Responsibility. An example is when lobbying groups work to take an organizations' power away by passing regulations.

The Iron Law of Responsibility states that when power imbalances get bad enough, forces are triggered that will rise up and take the power away (to restore power balances).

The idea that force is met with countervailing force is also described by psychological reactance theory, which says that people rebel against constraints and efforts to control their behavior. The extent to which we do this varies, but for some of us, when we feel overpowered it will trigger us to push back very hard in an effort to maintain our autonomy—perhaps without even realizing we are doing it!⁷

Psychological reactance theory says that people rebel against constraints and efforts to control their behavior.

Empowerment views, therefore, change our understanding of power away from a focus on “power over” others to a focus on “power with” others.⁸ It recognizes that the more power we allow others, the more power we will be given in return (e.g., treat people with respect and they will respect you back). The most sustainable way to gain and use power, therefore, is by increasing positive power all around.

Sources of Power and Influence

POSITION POWER PERSONAL POWER

INFORMATION POWER CONNECTION POWER

Over fifty years ago, John French and Bertram Raven identified a typology of five bases of power that is still used today.⁹ These bases are classified into two main categories: position power and personal power. Position power stems from the formal hierarchy or authority vested in a particular role or position. Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of position; it is generated in relationships with others.

Position power stems from the formal hierarchy or authority vested in a particular role.

Personal power resides in the individual, and is generated in relationships with others.

We can tell if the power a person holds is positional or personal because when a person leaves a position, their personal power goes with them. Have you ever had a really good boss or teacher who left a position and, when they did, it felt like a vacuum? This is because they had a lot of personal power. In the case of position power, however, the power stays with the position. For example, when the president of the United States leaves office, the daily security briefings that are a key source of information power are transferred to the new president.

Position Power

There are three main types of position power in organizations: legitimate power, reward power, and coercive power.

Legitimate Power Legitimate power represents the formal hierarchical authority that comes from a position. It is called legitimate because it represents a belief that those holding certain positions have a legitimate right to prescribe behavior, and those reporting to the position have a legitimate obligation to follow (e.g., “After all, I am your supervisor, and you should feel some obligation to do what I ask”).¹⁰ In organizations, legitimate power is hierarchically structured. Managers have authority, and subordinates are expected to comply with that authority. This power is associated with offices (i.e., positions) rather than between persons, and remains in the office regardless of who the occupant is.¹¹

Legitimate power is the formal hierarchical authority that comes with a position.

Managers who rely only on legitimate power are not likely to be powerful for very long. This is the mistake made by many first-time managers when they assume they are “the boss” but then find out that others are not willing to go along. Chester Barnard described an unwillingness to automatically comply with legitimate power as the zone of indifference. It represents the range of requests to which a person is willing to respond without subjecting the directives to critical evaluation or judgment.¹² When directives fall within the zone they are obeyed routinely, but when they fall outside the zone of indifference or are not considered legitimate, they are not necessarily obeyed, as is shown in Figure 12.1.

Zone of indifference is the range of authoritative requests to which a subordinate is willing to respond without subjecting the directives to critical evaluation or judgment.

FIGURE 12.1 Hypothetical psychological contract for a secretary.

Because the mere possession of formal authority can generate power distance that isolates managers from employees, overuse of legitimate power is often accompanied by hierarchical thinking in organizations. Hierarchical thinking occurs when hierarchical systems create environments of superiority among managers (i.e., “superiors”) and inferiority among employees (i.e., “subordinates”). Hierarchical thinking is a problem because it can lead employees to defer responsibility and initiative-taking, and cripple an organization that needs to be flexible and adaptive to survive.¹³

Hierarchical thinking occurs when hierarchical systems create positions of superiority and inferiority in organizations.

Reward Power Reward power comes from the ability to administer outcomes that have positive valence (i.e., provide positive rewards) and remove or decrease outcomes that have negative valence (i.e., remove negative rewards). Examples of rewards include money, promotions, kudos, enriched jobs, or not assigning unpleasant task duties or undesirable work schedules. For rewards to be effective, they must be perceived as equitable. Problems arise in the use of reward power when rewards do not match expectations.

Reward power comes from one's ability to administer positive rewards and remove or decrease negative rewards.

Coercive Power Coercive power involves the use of threat or punishment. It stems from the expectation that one will be punished if he or she fails to conform to the influence attempt. For example, coercive power can involve the threat that one will be transferred, demoted, or fired if they do not act as desired. Pay can become a form of coercive power when a manager threatens to withhold a pay raise. Although coercive power is sometimes needed to correct performance or behavioral problems, when not used carefully and sparingly, it can reduce the strength and quality of relationships. For this reason, organizations often have policies on employee treatment to protect employees from abuses of coercive power.

Coercive power is the use of punishment when others do not comply with influence attempts.

Personal Power

Personal power resides in the individual and comes from personal qualities distinct from position power, such as a person's reputation, charm, charisma, perceived worth, and right to respect from others.¹⁴ Because it resides in the person and not the position, it is available to anyone in the organization, not just those in formal or managerial roles. Sources of personal power include expert power and referent power.

Expert Power Expert power comes from special skills and abilities that others need but do not possess themselves. It can include knowledge, experience, and judgment. Expert power is often determined by the individual's performance record over time and the alternative sources of knowledge available. It also is highly influenced by the importance of the area of expertise. People who have expertise in steam engines have little expert power today compared to those with expertise in biotechnology. Expert power is also relative, not absolute. If you are the best cook in the kitchen, you have expert power until a real chef enters, and then the chef has the expert power.

Expert power is the power a person has because of special skills and abilities that others need but do not possess themselves.

Referent Power Referent power is the ability to alter another's behavior because the person wants to identify with you as the power source. Identification comes from a feeling of oneness with another, and it is based on the sense of wanting to be associated with another person or to feel part of a group.¹⁵ Identification acts as a source of referent power because it causes individuals to want to behave, believe, and perceive in ways similar to the leader. Individuals holding referent power are respected and looked up to by others. Although referent power is an invaluable source of power for individuals, it can be variable. To retain referent power, its holders are under constant pressure to maintain their exemplary images and live up to other's expectations.

Referent power is the ability to alter another's behavior because of the individual's desire to identify with the power source.

Information Power

Another form of power that plays an important role in organizations—and can be either positional or personal—is information power. Information power is possession of or access to information that is valuable to others.¹⁶ It can come from one's position in the organization, such as the information a manager has because he or she is in the chain of command. Or it can come from one's informal networks and being “in the know,” such as personal relationships with others who have access to information. Individuals who have information power have wide discretion in how to use it. Some will guard it, and others will share it to build more personal relationships and more substantive networks in organization.

Information power is possession of or access to information that is valuable to others.

Information power comes with a cautionary note. Individuals who use information power must be very careful not to share or spread proprietary information. Violating confidentiality and trust can lead to loss of relationships, which is damaging to all forms of power an individual may hold in organizations.

Connection Power

In today's interconnected society and knowledge-based organizations, connection power from networks and relationships is becoming increasingly important. Connection power is the ability to call on connections and networks both inside and outside the organization for support in getting things done and in meeting one's goals.¹⁷ It is another form of power that crosses both positional and personal power. Two forms of connection power are association power and reciprocal alliances.

Connection power is the ability to call on connections and networks both inside and outside the organization for support in getting things done and in meeting one's goals.

Association Power Association power arises from influence with a powerful person on whom others depend. Individuals have association power when they know people in key positions or have networks of relationships with higher-ups who connect them to influential others. Association power is reflected in the expression “It's not what you know but who you know.” It is valuable because so many things in organizations happen through personal connections and relationships. Association power can help you cut through bureaucracy, provide greater access to sponsorship and promotions, and allow you to gain access to positions and resources needed to get things done.

Association power arises from influence with a powerful person on whom others depend.

Reciprocal Alliances Reciprocal alliances describe a form of power arising from connections with others developed through reciprocity. Reciprocity is based on the concept that if one person does something for another, it will invoke an obligation to return the favor. For example, if your friend goes out of his way to give you a ride and you respond with “I owe you one,” you are recognizing that you are now indebted to that friend until you can pay him back in some way. These bonds of indebtedness link individuals together in networks of relationships.

Reciprocal alliances represent power arising from alliances with others developed through reciprocity (the trading of power or favors for mutual gain in organizational transactions).

Effective networkers recognize that reciprocity and reciprocal alliances are a powerful way to form strong networks in organizations. Research shows that executives who consistently rank in the top 20 percent of their companies in both performance and well-being have developed strong networks made up of high-quality relationships from diverse areas and up and down the corporate hierarchy. Such networks are characterized by an exchange of resources and support, including access to information, expertise, best practices, mentoring, developmental feedback, and political support.¹⁸

Responses to Power and Influence

CONFORMITY RESISTANCE HOW POWER CORRUPTS

Power is relational. Whether you have power depends on how others respond to your influence attempts. If individuals do not defer to your influence attempt, then you have no power. This means that to understand power you need to keep in mind how individuals respond to you and your influence.

Conformity

In the earliest formal research into power and influence, Herbert Kelman identified three levels of conformity one can make to another's influence attempt: compliance, identification, and internalization.

Compliance Compliance occurs when individuals accept another's influence because of the positive or negative outcomes tied to it. When individuals comply, they go along not because they want to but because they have to. When you take a required class for a subject you are not interested in or study only because you have to, you are complying. The motivation here is purely instrumental—it is done to obtain the specific reward or avoid the punishment associated with not complying.

Compliance occurs when individuals accept another's influence not because they believe in the content but because of the rewards or punishment associated with the requested action.

Because compliance is an extrinsic form of motivation, it results in minimal effort (proportional to the reward or punishment). Because of this, it is not a very effective influence strategy in the long run. Moreover, it requires surveillance by management. For example, employees who are not committed to excellent customer service will typically slack off when the supervisor is not monitoring their behavior.

Commitment Commitment occurs when individuals accept an influence attempt out of duty or obligation. Committed individuals agree with the desired action and show initiative and persistence in completing it. Kelman identified two forms of commitment in response to influence attempts: identification and internalization.

Commitment occurs when individuals accept an influence attempt out of duty or obligation.

Identification is displayed when individuals accept an influence attempt because they want to maintain a positive relationship with the person or group making the influence request.¹⁹ Students who join a fraternity or sorority accept the influence of their peers because they identify with the organization and want to be part of the group. Internalization occurs when an individual accepts influence because the induced behavior is congruent with their value system. Internalization means you believe in the ideas and actions you are being asked to undertake. For example, members of religious organizations follow the dictates of the church because they truly believe in the principles and philosophies being advocated.

Identification occurs when individuals accept an influence attempt because they want to maintain a positive relationship with the person or group making the influence request.

Internalization occurs when an individual accepts influence because the induced behavior is congruent with their value system.

Resistance

Responses to power include not only conformity but also resistance. Resistance involves individuals saying no, making excuses, stalling or even arguing against the initiative. There are two main types of resistance strategies used by individuals when they perceive an impractical request from their supervisor: constructive resistance and dysfunctional resistance.²⁰

Constructive Resistance Constructive resistance is characterized by thoughtful dissent aimed at constructively challenging the manager to rethink the issue. Individuals who use constructive resistance make suggestions for alternative actions accompanied by reasons for noncompliance. They do so in the hope of opening a dialogue to try to find a more appropriate solution to a problem.²¹

Constructive resistance is characterized by thoughtful dissent aimed at constructively challenging the influencing agent to rethink the issue.

Dysfunctional Resistance Dysfunctional resistance involves ignoring or dismissing the request of the influencing agent.²² Employees who engage in dysfunctional resistance attempt to thwart and undermine the manager by disrupting workflows (e.g., ignoring requests, making only a half-hearted effort, or simply refusing to comply by just saying “no”).

Dysfunctional resistance involves a more passive form of noncompliance in which individuals ignore or dismiss the request of the influencing agent.

Studies of dysfunctional resistance show that employees are more likely to refuse when their supervisors are abusive, but that these effects depend on the employee's personality. Conscientious employees are more likely to use constructive resistance, whereas less conscientious employees are more likely to use dysfunctional resistance.²³ Moreover, employees who use constructive resistance are more likely to receive positive performance ratings from managers, whereas employees who use dysfunctional resistance are more likely to receive negative ratings from managers.²⁴

How Power Corrupts

We have all heard the expression “Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” The question is why? What is it about power that causes people to lose perspective and do terrible things that cause great harm to themselves and others?

Dean Ludwig and Clinton Longenecker describe the problem as the Bathsheba syndrome.²⁵ The Bathsheba syndrome is based on the story of King David, a once great and revered leader who got caught up in a downward spiral of unethical decisions when his success led him to feel so privileged and self-indulgent that he took another man's wife (Bathsheba), and then covered it up through murder and deception. It describes what happens to men and women of otherwise strong personal integrity and intelligence, who just at the moment of seemingly “having it all”—and despite the fact that they know it is wrong—engage in unethical and selfish behavior with the mistaken belief that they have the power to conceal it.

The Bathsheba syndrome is epitomized when men and women in the pinnacle of power with strong personal integrity and intelligence engage in unethical and selfish behavior because they mistakenly believe they are above the law.

The lesson from the Bathsheba syndrome is that power can have corruptive effects that, if not prepared for, may lead to devastating outcomes. To avoid the Bathsheba syndrome, individuals should prepare themselves for success. Success often leads to complacency—it can make those who have it too comfortable and inflate their ego, causing one to lose perspective. Power can have an intoxicating allure that makes people crave more and more of it.

A key to being powerful, therefore, is to manage yourself in the face of power. Maintaining humility and being around others who will push back on you can help keep you grounded and maintain perspective. Being powerful also means taking responsibility in the face of others' power. Responsibly managing power means acting to keep power in check.

Understanding Organizational Politics

WHY DO WE HAVE ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS?

THE ROLE OF SELF-INTEREST POLITICAL CLIMATES

For many, the word politics conjures up thoughts of illicit deals, favors, and advantageous personal relationships. It is important, however, to understand the importance of organizational politics and how they can help the workplace function in a much broader capacity.²⁶

Why Do We Have Organizational Politics?

Politics occur because we have both formal and informal systems in organizations.²⁷ Formal systems tell us what is to be done in organizations and how work processes are to be coordinated and structured. They represent the “rational” side of organizations that controls behavior and reduces uncertainty. Not all behaviors in organizations can be prescribed, however, so informal systems arise to fill in the blanks. Informal systems are patterns of activity and relationships that arise in everyday activities when individuals and groups work to get things done. They are highly changeable and occur through personal connections. For example, when a salesperson uses a personal connection with someone in operations to help speed up an order for a customer, this is an example of the informal system.

Formal systems dictate what is to be done in organizations and how work processes are to be coordinated and structured.

Informal systems are patterns of activity and relationships that arise in everyday activities as individuals and groups work to get things done.

Organizational politics involve efforts by organizational members to seek resources and achieve desired goals through informal systems and structures. Politics represent how people get ahead, how they gain and use power, and how they get things done (for good and bad) in organizations.

Organizational politics are efforts by organizational members to seek resources and achieve desired goals through informal systems and structures.

The Role of Self-Interest

Like power, organizational politics are neutral. Whether they are good or bad depends on how they are used. They are positive when they advance the interests of the organization and do not intentionally harm individuals. They are negative when they involve self-interested behaviors of individuals and groups who work to benefit themselves in ways that disadvantage others and the organization.

Self-interested politics occur when people work to shift otherwise ambiguous outcomes to their personal advantage. What makes this tricky is that individuals often disagree as to whose self-interests are most valuable. Self-interested politics are those that benefit, protect, or enhance self-interests without consideration of the welfare of co-workers or the organization.²⁸ They include illegitimate political activities such as coalition building, favoritism-based pay and promotions, scapegoating, backstabbing, and using information as a political tool to enhance one's self or harm others.

Self-interested politics occur when individuals or groups work to shift otherwise ambiguous outcomes to their personal advantage without consideration of the organization or coworkers.

Political Climates

Political climate refers to whether people in organizations work “within” or “around” formal policies and procedures in getting their work done.²⁹ When people work around formal policies and procedures, the climate is perceived as more political. Less political climates involve more direct and straightforward activities, where there is less need to interpret and watch out for the behaviors happening behind the scenes.

Political climate is the shared perceptions about the political nature of the organization.

Informal Systems and Workarounds Consistent with the idea that politics manifest in and through informal systems, organizational political climates are seen in the extent to which people engage in workarounds. Workarounds occur when people go around rules to accomplish a task or goal because the normal process or method isn't producing the desired result.³⁰ Workarounds can involve seeking assistance from influential people in one's network, exploiting loopholes in a system, or using one's connections to access potentially useful information or influence decisions.

Workarounds occur when people work around the system to accomplish a task or goal when the normal process or method isn't producing the desired result.

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

How the political climate is seen depends on the nature and motivation of workarounds. Workarounds that benefit oneself or one's work unit at the expense of others will likely trigger copycat behaviors, fueling dysfunctional political climates. When workarounds are used to benefit the organization, however, such as when a policy loophole is used to make a process more efficient or to contribute to an innovative new service, they contribute to advancing organizational interests. In this case they serve a functional purpose.³¹

Connections and Perceptions Two people in the same work group may experience a political climate very differently. The difference depends on one's status and power in the political system. For someone in the know and highly connected, the political climate will likely be perceived as quite positive. For an individual who is disadvantaged or not well connected, the political climate can be seen as very negative.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

People who are connected with powerful others see the political climate as a vital and important part of their career and professional advancement. Those who are in the “out group” and without access to organizational power and status, have much more negative perceptions of organizational politics. They see political climates as rewarding employees who engage in manipulative influence tactics, which can include things like taking credit for others' work, coalition building, and using connections to create unfair advantage. Those who report stronger perceptions of organizational politics often experience greater job stress and strain, reduced job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and, ultimately, increased turnover.³²

Navigating the Political Landscape

BUILDING POWER BASES DEVELOPING POLITICAL SKILLS NETWORKING

Power and politics are facts of life in organizations. They are necessary for getting things done in social systems. So to be effective we need to manage our power successfully in political environments. Those who don't navigate politics in organizations are at a disadvantage not only in terms of winning raises and promotions, but maybe even in keeping their jobs.

A key to navigating power and politics is managing one's own attitude and behavior. People who are nonpolitical or cynical about power may find themselves not getting promoted and being left out of key decisions and activities in the organization. Those who are overly political and abuse their power may be perceived as Machiavellian, or self-serving. Ultimately these people may lose credibility and influence. A moderate amount of prudent political behavior, therefore, is a survival tool. It involves understanding how to establish power bases, develop political skills, and build strong and effective networks.

Building Power Bases

You have to establish your power bases—position, personal, information, connection—to do well at managing power and politics. Power bases are the sources of power (position, personal, information, connection) that individuals and subunits develop in organizations. As can be seen in Figure 12.2 shows these sources of power can help in navigating political climates in organizations. Individuals without established power bases are more susceptible to powerlessness. A lack of power limits ability to have real influence. Persons with power are able to advance important initiatives and gain access to key resources. They are also better able to protect themselves from powerful others. Power bases must be established before you need them, however. If you wait to develop them when needed, it is probably too late.

Power bases are the sources of power individuals and subunits develop in organizations.

There are two main ways to build power bases in organizations. The first involves establishing competence and value added to the organization. This builds personal and position power by proving your ability to perform at higher levels and having competencies that are hard to replace. High competency and value added make an individual or work unit non-substitutable. They increase others' dependency on you. The goal for individuals and teams is to increase non-substitutability by making their work more critical, relevant, visible, and central to organizational performance.

Non-substitutable means that the individual or the work performed by the subunit cannot be easily replaced.

The second way to build power bases is through developing information and connection power. You do this by building relationships and networks. Information comes from formal access to information (e.g., meetings, task forces, e-mails, policy documents), informal access to information (e.g., grapevine, hall talk) and the opportunity to distribute or share information with others (e.g., being the first to tell others about an organizational change).³³ Individuals who want to build information power often spend a lot of time making connections that let them be “in the know.” They can use this information in various (positive or negative) ways, such as telling others the “real” story, withholding information, filtering communication, and even selectively leaking key information to suit their purposes.

FIGURE 12.2 Building power bases.

FIGURE 12.3 Sample scenarios for connections and networks in organizations.

Connection power comes from internal networks, external networks, and being central in a network. The sample connection and network scenarios in Figure 12.3 show how you can build your connection power by aligning with others to gain advice, friendship, alliances, collaborations, information flows, and access to job opportunities.

Developing Political Skills

Rarely in organizational politics are things as they appear. Instead they are more like those 3D hidden stereogram images in which, on the surface, you see a bunch of dots, but when you peer deeply into the image a hidden picture emerges. Individuals who are successful at politics are like this. They know how to read political situations and uncover the real motivations and connections going on behind the scenes. They have what can be described as political savvy—skill and adroitness at reading political environments and understanding how to influence effectively in these environments.

Political savvy is skill and adroitness at reading political environments and understanding how to influence effectively in these environments.

Another term for political savvy is political skill, defined as the ability to understand and influence others to act in ways that enhance personal and/or organizational objectives.³⁵ Individuals who are high in political skill have the ability to read and understand people and get them to act in desired ways. They use connections to skillfully align themselves with others to attain goals. They adapt their behavior to the situation, but with authenticity and genuineness to build trust and credibility rather than suspicion or disdain.

Political skill is an ability to use knowledge of others to influence them to act in desired ways.

Developing political savvy involves learning to read the situation, increasing awareness of self and others, negotiating with rather than negating others and framing messages so that others will listen (e.g., a focus on organizational interest rather than self-interest). One of the best ways you can build these skills is to learn from and watch others who have them. It is also helpful to find mentors or sponsors who can provide developmental feedback and coaching in how to interpret and respond to political environments.

Networking

What you know is not enough. You also need connections, or social capital, to get ahead. Social capital is resources that come from networks of relationships.³⁶ It differs from human capital, which is knowledge, skills, and intellectual assets employees bring to the workplace. Whereas human capital represents what you know, social capital represents who you know. The importance of social capital is understanding that being smart, or having great ideas and information, is not sufficient—it is only beneficial if you are able to get the ideas communicated and implemented.

Social capital is the current or potential resources gained through one's network.

Human capital is the knowledge, skills, and intellectual assets employees bring to the workplace.

Networking helps individuals find better jobs and enjoy greater occupational success. If you have more network ties, you have greater opportunity to gain access to resources and influence others. Research has found that for many things—such as finding jobs or getting ahead—weak “acquaintance” ties work better than strong “friendship” ties. Individuals have greater access to more and different job opportunities when relying on weak ties.³⁷ This is good news because strong ties are costly to maintain—they require more time than weak associations.

Another way individuals can provide an advantage to themselves and to organizations is by acting as a broker, someone who bridges structural holes which exist as gaps between individuals and groups without connections in networks.³⁸ Brokers develop relationships that link formerly unconnected actors by building bridges that provide greater access to information, resources, and opportunities. Bridging ties provide access to a diverse set of opinions, which is important for creativity. Networking is vital to the performance of both individuals and organizations.

Brokers serve as links between structural holes in a network, providing greater access to resources, information, and opportunities.

Structural holes are the gaps between individuals and groups in a social network.

The most beneficial networks come from acquaintances one makes through everyday work activities and professional events, as well as from reciprocity in the exchange of resources. Skilled networkers know that a request for a favor is a great opportunity. If you do a favor for someone else, he or she will now feel obligated to pay you back when needed. People who get ahead keep themselves open to opportunities, continually develop their competencies and skills sets, and build connections and relationships that benefit both individual and organizational success.

12 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers

What is power, and how does it operate in organizations?

• Power is the ability to get things done in organizations; it comes from being able to influence or control things that are important to another person or group.
• A key to managing power is managing dependencies, or the reliance we have on another person or group to get what we want or need.
• When people have strong dependencies on others, they often experience powerlessness; it is not power but powerlessness that has debilitating effects in relationships and organizations.
• Empowerment approaches move away from powerlessness by focusing on “power with” rather than “power over.”

What are the sources of power and influence?

• Position power comes from the formal hierarchy or authority vested in a particular role; sources include legitimate power, reward power, and coercive power.
• Personal power is generated in relationships with others; sources include expert power and referent power.
• Information power can be either positional or personal, and comes from access to information that is valuable to others.
• Connection power is the ability to call on connections and networks both inside and outside the organization for support in getting things done and meeting one's goals; sources include association power and reciprocal alliances.

How do people respond to power and influence?

• When individuals go along with power and authority, they are conforming. Three levels of conformity include compliance, identification, and internalization.
• Individuals can also resist power. Research has distinguished two types of resistance strategies used by individuals when they perceive an impractical request from their supervisor: constructive resistance and dysfunctional resistance.
• Individuals who hold power can be corrupted by it; the Bathsheba syndrome describes a situation in which individuals who become successful abuse power.
• A key to responding to power is managing oneself in the face of it, both in terms of being a responsible power holder and in reacting responsibly to others' power.

What are organizational politics?

• Organizational politics represent efforts by organizational members to seek resources and achieve desired goals through informal systems and structures.
• Politics represent how people get ahead, how they gain and use power, and how they get things done (for good and bad) in organizations.
• Political behaviors are positive when they advance the interests of the organization and do not intentionally harm individuals; they are negative when they involve self-interested behaviors of individuals and groups who work to benefit themselves in ways that disadvantage others and the organization.
• An organization's political climate represents the shared perceptions about the political nature of the organization; when individuals hold negative perceptions of the political climate they experience greater job stress, lower job satisfaction, and increased turnover.

How do individuals navigate politics in organizations?

• A moderate amount of prudent political behavior is a survival tool; it involves understanding how to establish power bases, develop political skills, and build strong and effective networks.
• Power bases are the sources of power individuals and subunits develop in organizations; they help individuals advance important initiatives and gain access to key resources as well as protect themselves when threatened by powerful others.
• Two main ways to build power bases in organizations include establishing competence and building networks.
• Individuals who are high in political skill have the ability to read and understand people, and then act on that knowledge in influential ways.

Terms to Know

Association power (p. 266)

Bathsheba syndrome (p. 268)

Brokers (p. 276)

Coercive power (p. 264)

Commitment (p. 268)

Compliance (p. 267)

Connection power (p. 266)

Constructive resistance (p. 268)

Control (p. 260)

Dependence (p. 260)

Dysfunctional resistance (p. 268)

Empowerment (p. 262)

Expert power (p. 265)

Force (p. 260)

Formal systems (p. 270)

Hierarchical thinking (p. 264)

Human capital (p. 275)

Identification (p. 268)

Informal systems (p. 270)

Information power (p. 266)

Internalization (p. 268)

Iron Law of Responsibility (p. 263)

Legitimate power (p. 263)

Non-substitutable (p. 273)

Organizational politics (p. 270)

Political climate (p. 270)

Personal power (p. 263)

Political savvy (p. 274)

Political skill (p. 274)

Position power (p. 263)

Power (p. 260)

Power bases (p. 273)

Powerlessness (p. 261)

Psychological reactance theory (p. 263)

Reciprocal alliances (p. 267)

Referent power (p. 265)

Reward power (p. 264)

Self-interested politics (p. 270)

Social capital (p. 275)

Social power (p. 260)

Structural holes (p. 276)

Workarounds (p. 271)

Zero sum game (p. 261)

Zone of indifference (p. 264)

Self-Test 12

Multiple Choice

1. Social power differs from __________, which is power made operative against another's will.
   1. (a) powerlessness
   2. (b) force
   3. (c) dependence
   4. (d) zero sum game
2. The idea that social power can be an expanding pie is the basis for the trend toward ____________.
   1. (a) hierarchical thinking
   2. (b) political climate
   3. (c) personal power
   4. (d) empowerment
3. __________ says that if you do not use power appropriately others will rise up to take it away.
   1. (a) Empowerment
   2. (b) Instrumental theory
   3. (c) The Iron Law of Responsibility
   4. (d) Coercive power
4. Legitimate power is a form of___________ power.
   1. (a) position
   2. (b) personal
   3. (c) connection
   4. (d) information
5. Failure to comply because a directive does not fall in the acceptable range of requests is called _________.
   1. (a) a zero sum game
   2. (b) powerlessness
   3. (c) political savvy
   4. (d) the zone of indifference
6. What form of power stems from the expectation that a person will be punished if he or she fails to conform to influence attempts?
   1. (a) reward power
   2. (b) legitimate power
   3. (c) coercive power
   4. (d) referent power
7. In today's interdependent society and knowledge-based organizations, ____________ is becoming increasingly important.
   1. (a) connection power
   2. (b) coercive power
   3. (c) referent power
   4. (d) control
8. Power that comes from who you know is called _________.
   1. (a) human capital
   2. (b) association power
   3. (c) referent power
   4. (d) interpersonal power
9. When individuals respond to power because they want to obtain a reward or avoid punishment, they are being _________.
   1. (a) politically savvy
   2. (b) empowered
   3. (c) instrumental
   4. (d) resistant
10. ___________ is a passive form of resistance that involves noncompliance.
    1. (a) Constructive resistance
    2. (b) Dysfunctional resistance
    3. (c) Controlled resistance
    4. (d) Conscientious resistance
11. Organizational politics occur in the _________ of an organization.
    1. (a) hierarchical structures
    2. (b) boundaries
    3. (c) formal systems
    4. (d) informal systems
12. A __________ is when individuals go outside the formal system to accomplish a task or goal.
    1. (a) workaround
    2. (b) power base
    3. (c) network
    4. (d) political climate
13. Individuals who have _________ know how to read political situations and respond effectively.
    1. (a) perceptions of organizational politics
    2. (b) networks
    3. (c) political savvy
    4. (d) power bases
14. Networking builds ___________ in organizations.
    1. (a) human capital
    2. (b) social capital
    3. (c) informal systems
    4. (d) political savvy
15. _________ help individuals have influence in organizations and provide protection against powerful others.
    1. (a) Social skills
    2. (b) Political climates
    3. (c) Formal systems
    4. (d) Power bases

Short Response

16. What do we mean when we say power is based on dependencies?

17. Why is powerlessness a problem in organizations?

18. How can you tell if someone's power is positional or personal?

19. Why do we have politics in organizations?

Applications Essay

20. Cristos is starting his first job after graduating from college. He is very excited but also very nervous. He has heard from others that the organization he will be working in has a highly political environment and that he needs to be careful. What advice would you give him about how to best manage himself in terms of power and politics in his organization?

 

Steps to Further Learning 12

Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 12.