Glossary

360° evaluation gathers evaluations from a jobholder's bosses, peers, and subordinates, as well as internal and external customers and self-ratings.

Absorptive capacity is the ability to learn.

Accommodation, or smoothing, involves playing down differences and finding areas of agreement.

Achievement-oriented leadership emphasizes setting goals, stressing excellence, and showing confidence in people's ability to achieve high standards of performance.

Active listening encourages people to say what they really mean.

Activity measures of performance assess inputs in terms of work efforts.

Adaptive capacity refers to the ability to change.

Adhocracy emphasizes shared, decentralized decision making; extreme horizontal specialization; few levels of management; the virtual absence of formal controls; and few rules, policies, and procedures.

Adjourning stage is where teams disband when their work is finished.

Affect is the range of feelings in the forms of emotions and moods that people experience.

Agency theory suggests that public corporations can function effectively even though their managers are self-interested and do not always automatically bear the full consequences of their managerial actions.

Americans with Disabilities Act is a federal civil rights statute that protects the rights of people with disabilities.

Amoral managers fail to consider the ethics of a decision or behavior.

Anchoring and adjustment heuristic bases a decision on incremental adjustments to an initial value determined by historical precedent or some reference point.

Attitude is a predisposition to respond positively or negatively to someone or something.

Attribution is the process of creating explanations for events.

Authoritarianism is a tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority.

Authoritative command uses formal authority to end conflict.

Availability heuristic bases a decision on recent events relating to the situation at hand.

Avoidance involves pretending a conflict does not really exist.

Awareness of others is being aware of the behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, and personalities of others.

Bargaining zone is the range between one party's minimum reservation point and the other party's maximum.

Behavioral complexity is the possession of a repertoire of roles and the ability to selectively apply them.

Behavioral decision model views decision makers as acting only in terms of what they perceive about a given situation.

Behavioral perspective assumes that leadership is central to performance and other outcomes.

Behaviorally anchored rating scale links performance ratings to specific and observable job-relevant behaviors.

Bonuses are extra pay awards for special performance accomplishments.

Brainstorming involves generating ideas through “freewheeling” and without criticism.

Bureaucracy is an ideal form of organizations, the characteristics of which were defined by the German sociologist Max Weber.

Centralization is the degree to which the authority to make decisions is restricted to higher levels of management.

Centralized communication networks link group members through a central control point.

Certain environments provide full information on the expected results for decision-making alternatives.

Channel richness indicates the capacity of a channel to convey information.

Charisma provides vision and a sense of mission, and it instills pride along with follower respect and trust.

Charismatic leaders are those leaders who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers.

Classical decision model views decision makers as acting in a world of complete certainty.

Coalition power is the ability to control another's behavior indirectly because the individual owes an obligation to you or another as part of a larger collective interest.

Coercive power is the extent to which a manager can deny desired rewards or administer punishment to control other people.

Cognitive complexity is the degree to which individuals perceive nuances and subtle differences.

Cognitive dissonance is experienced inconsistency between one's attitudes and/or between attitudes and behavior.

Cohesiveness is the degree to which members are attracted to a group and motivated to remain a part of it.

Collaboration and problem solving involves recognition that something is wrong and needs attention through problem solving.

Collective intelligence is the ability of a team to perform well across a range of tasks.

Communication is the process of sending and receiving symbols with attached meanings.

Communication channels are the pathways through which messages are communicated.

Commutative justice is the degree to which exchanges and transactions are considered fair.

Competition seeks victory by force, superior skill, or domination.

Complex adaptive systems interact and adapt with their environments to survive.

Compressed workweek allows a full-time job to be completed in fewer than the standard five days.

Compromise occurs when each party gives up something of value to the other.

Conceptual skill is the ability to analyze and solve complex problems.

Confirmation error is the tendency to seek confirmation for what is already thought to be true and not search for disconfirming information.

Conflict occurs when parties disagree over substantive issues or when emotional antagonisms create friction between them.

Conflict resolution occurs when the reasons for a conflict are eliminated.

Conglomerates are firms that own several different unrelated businesses.

Consensus is a group decision that has the expressed support of most members.

Consideration is sensitive to people's feelings.

Consultative decisions are made by one individual after seeking input from or consulting with members of a group.

Content theories profile different needs that may motivate individual behavior.

Context is the collection of opportunities and constraints that affect the occurrence and meaning of behavior and the relationships among variables.

Contingency thinking seeks ways to meet the needs of different management situations.

Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs.

Contrast effect occurs when the meaning of something that takes place is based on a contrast with another recent event or situation.

Control is the set of mechanisms used to keep actions and outputs within predetermined limits.

Controlling monitors performance and takes any needed corrective action.

Coordination is the set of mechanisms used in an organization to link the actions of its subunits into a consistent pattern.

Coping is a response or reaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened.

Countercultures are groups in which the patterns of values and philosophies outwardly reject those of the organization or social system.

Counterproductive work behaviors are behaviors that intentionally disrupt relationships or performance at work.

Creativity generates unique and novel responses to problems.

Crisis decision occurs when an unexpected problem can lead to disaster if not resolved quickly and appropriately.

Criteria questions assess a decision in terms of utility, rights, justice, and caring.

Critical incident diaries record actual examples of positive and negative work behaviors and results.

Cross-functional team has members from different functions or work units.

Cultural symbol is any object, act, or event that serves to transmit cultural meaning.

Culturally endorsed leadership dimension is one that members of a culture expect from effective leaders.

Culture is the learned and shared way of thinking and acting among a group of people or society.

Decentralization is the degree to which the authority to make decisions is given to lower levels in an organization's hierarchy.

Decentralized communication networks allow members to communicate directly with one another.

Decision making is the process of choosing among alternative courses of action.

Deep-level diversity involves individual differences in things like personality and values.

Defensiveness occurs when individuals feel they are being attacked and need to protect themselves.

Delphi technique involves generating decision-making alternatives through a series of survey questionnaires.

Dependent variables are outcomes of practical value and interest that are influenced by independent variables.

Directive leadership spells out the what and how of subordinates' tasks.

Disconfirmation occurs when an individual feels his or her self-worth is being questioned.

Discrimination actively denies minority members the full benefits of organizational membership.

Display rules govern the degree to which it is appropriate to display emotions.

Disruptive behaviors in teams harm the group process and limit team effectiveness.

Distress is a negative impact on both attitudes and performance.

Distributed leadership shares responsibility among members for meeting team task and maintenance needs.

Distributive justice is the degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy.

Distributive negotiation focuses on positions staked out or declared by the parties involved, each of whom is trying to claim certain portions of the available pie.

Diversity-consensus dilemma is the tendency for diversity in groups to create process difficulties even as it offers improved potential for problem solving.

Divisional departmentation groups individuals and resources by products, territories, services, clients, or legal entities.

Dogmatism leads a person to see the world as a threatening place and to regard authority as absolute.

Downward communication follows the chain of command from top to bottom.

Dysfunctional conflict works to the group's or organization's disadvantage.

Ecological fallacy acting with the mistaken assumption that a generalized cultural value applies always and equally to all members of the culture.

Effective leaders are individuals who use influence to create change that benefits the mission and vision of the organization.

Effective manager helps others achieve high levels of both performance and satisfaction.

Effective negotiation occurs when substance issues are resolved and working relationships are maintained or improved.

Effective team is one that achieves high levels of task performance, member satisfaction, and team viability.

Emotion and mood contagion is the spillover of one's emotions and mood onto others.

Emotion-focused coping are mechanisms that regulate emotions or distress.

Emotional adjustment traits are traits related to how much an individual experiences emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts.

Emotional conflict involves interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment, and the like.

Emotional dissonance is inconsistency between emotions we feel and those we try to project.

Emotional intelligence is an ability to understand emotions and manage relationships effectively.

Emotional labor is a situation in which a person displays organizationally desired emotions in a job.

Emotions are strong positive or negative feelings directed toward someone or something.

Employee engagement is a strong sense of connection with the organization and passion for one's job.

Employee involvement team meets regularly to address workplace issues.

Employee stock ownership plans give stock to employees or allow them to purchase stock at special prices.

Empowerment is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power needed to make decisions affecting themselves and their work.

Encoding is the process of translating an idea or thought into a message consisting of verbal, written, or nonverbal symbols (such as gestures), or some combination of them.

Environmental complexity is the magnitude of the problems and opportunities in the organization's environment as evidenced by the degree of richness, interdependence, and uncertainty.

Equity theory posits that people will act to eliminate any felt inequity in the rewards received for their work in comparison with others.

ERG theory identifies existence, relatedness, and growth needs.

Ethics is the philosophical study of morality.

Ethics mindfulness is an enriched awareness that causes one to consistently behave with ethical consciousness.

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to believe one's culture and its values are superior to those of others.

Eustress is a stress that has a positive impact on both attitudes and performance.

Evidence-based management uses hard facts and empirical evidence to make decisions.

Existence needs are desires for physiological and material well-being.

Expectancy is the probability that work effort will be followed by performance accomplishment.

Expectancy theory argues that work motivation is determined by individual beliefs regarding effort-performance relationships and work outcomes.

Expert power is the ability to control another's behavior because of the possession of knowledge, experience, or judgment that the other person does not have but needs.

Exploitation focuses on refinement and reuse of existing products and processes.

Exploration calls for the organization and its managers to stress freedom and radical thinking and therefore opens the firm to big changes—or what some call radical innovations.

External adaptation deals with reaching goals, the tasks to be accomplished, the methods used to achieve the goals, and the methods of coping with success and failure.

Extinction discourages a behavior by making the removal of a desirable consequence contingent on its occurrence.

Extrinsic rewards are valued outcomes given by some other person.

Feedback communicates how one feels about something another person has done or said.

Filter limits information by conveying only certain parts that are relevant.

FIRO-B theory examines differences in how people relate to one another based on their needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection.

Flaming is expressing rudeness when using e-mail or other forms of electronic communication.

Flexible working hours gives individuals some amount of choice in scheduling their daily work hours.

Followership is defined as the behaviors of individuals acting in relation to leaders.

Force-coercion strategy uses authority, rewards, and punishments to create change.

Forced distribution in performance appraisal forces a set percentage of persons into predetermined rating categories.

Formal channels follow the official chain of command.

Formal teams are official and designated to serve a specific purpose.

Formalization is written documentation of work rules, policies, and procedures.

Forming stage focuses around the initial entry of members to a team.

Framing means tailoring communication in ways to encourage certain interpretations and discourage others.

Framing error is solving a problem in the context perceived.

Functional conflict results in positive benefits to the group.

Functional departmentation is grouping individuals by skill, knowledge, and action.

Functional silos problem occurs when members of one functional team fail to interact with others from other functional teams.

Fundamental attribution error overestimates internal factors and underestimates external factors as influences on someone's behavior.

Gain sharing rewards employees in some proportion to productivity gains.

General environment is the set of cultural, economic, legal-political, and educational conditions found in the areas in which the organization operates.

Glass ceiling effect is an invisible barrier limiting career advancement of women and minorities.

Goal setting is the process of setting performance targets.

Grafting is the process of acquiring individuals, units, or firms to bring in useful knowledge.

Grapevine transfers information through networks of friendships and acquaintances.

Graphic rating scales in performance appraisal assigns scores to specific performance dimensions.

Group or team dynamics are the forces operating in teams that affect the ways members work together.

Groupthink is the tendency of cohesive group members to lose their critical evaluative capabilities.

Growth needs are desires for continued personal growth and development.

Halo effect uses one attribute to develop an overall impression of a person or situation.

Heterogeneous team members differ in many characteristics.

Heuristics are simplifying strategies or “rules of thumb” used to make decisions.

Hierarchy of needs theory offers a pyramid of physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

High-context cultures use words to convey only part of a message, while the rest of the message must be inferred from body language and additional contextual cues.

Higher-order needs in Maslow's hierarchy are esteem and self-actualization.

Hindsight trap is a tendency to overestimate the degree to which an event that has already taken place could have been predicted.

Homogeneous team members share many similar characteristics.

Hope is the tendency to look for alternative pathways to reach a desired goal.

Horizontal specialization is a division of labor through the formation of work units or groups within an organization.

Human skill is the ability to work well with other people.

Hygiene factors in the job context are sources of job dissatisfaction.

Immoral manager chooses to behave unethically; an amoral manager fails to consider the ethics of a decision or behavior.

Implicit followership theories are preconceived notions about prototypical and antiprototypical followership behaviors and characteristics.

Implicit leadership theories are preconceived notions about the attributes associated with leaders that reflect the structure and content of “cognitive categories” used to distinguish leaders from nonleaders.

Impression management is the systematic attempt to influence how others perceive us.

In-group is a state that occurs when individuals feel part of a group and experience favorable status and a sense of belonging.

Inclusion is the degree to which an organization's culture respects and values diversity.

Incremental change builds on the existing ways of operating to enhance or extend them in new directions.

Independent variables are presumed causes that influence dependent variables.

Individual decisions (or authority decisions) are made by one person on behalf of the team.

Individual differences are the ways in which people are similar and how they vary in their thinking, feeling, and behavior.

Individualism-collectivism is the tendency of members of a culture to emphasize individual self-interests or group relationships.

Individualized consideration provides personal attention, treats each employee individually, and coaches and advises.

Influence is a behavioral response to the exercise of power.

Informal channels do not follow the chain of command.

Informal groups are unofficial and emerge to serve special interests.

Information power is the access to and/or the control of information.

Information technology is the combination of machines, artifacts, procedures, and systems used to gather, store, analyze, and disseminate information for translating it into knowledge.

Initiating structure is concerned with spelling out the task requirements and clarifying aspects of the work agenda.

Innovation is the process of creating new ideas and putting them into practice.

Inspiration communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, and expresses important purposes in simple ways.

Instrumental values reflect a person's beliefs about the means to achieve desired ends.

Instrumentality is the probability that performance will lead to various work outcomes.

Integrative negotiation focuses on the merits of the issues; the parties involved try to enlarge the available pie rather than stake claims to certain portions of it.

Intellectual stimulation promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving by, for example, encouraging looking at a very difficult problem in a new way.

Inter-team dynamics occur as groups cooperate and compete with one another.

Interactional justice is the degree to which people are treated with dignity and respect in decisions affecting them.

Interactional transparency is the open and honest sharing of information.

Interfirm alliances are announced cooperative agreements or joint ventures between two independent firms.

Intergroup conflict occurs among groups in an organization.

Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically.

Internal integration deals with the creation of a collective identity and with ways of working and living together.

Interorganizational conflict occurs between organizations.

Interpersonal barriers occur when individuals are not able to listen objectively to the sender due to considerations such as lack of trust, personality clashes, a bad reputation, or stereotypes/prejudices.

Interpersonal conflict occurs between two or more individuals in opposition to each other.

Intrapersonal conflict occurs within the individual because of actual or perceived pressures from incompatible goals or expectations.

Intrinsic rewards are valued outcomes received directly through task performance.

Intuitive thinking approaches problems in a flexible and spontaneous fashion.

Job burnout is a loss of interest in or satisfaction with a job due to stressful working conditions.

Job design is the process of specifying job tasks and work arrangements.

Job enlargement increases task variety by combining into one job two or more tasks that were previously assigned to separate workers.

Job enrichment builds high-content jobs that involve planning and evaluating duties normally done by supervisors.

Job involvement is the extent to which an individual is dedicated to a job.

Job rotation increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different tasks.

Job satisfaction is the degree to which an individual feels positive or negative about a job.

Job sharing is where one full-time job is split between two or more persons who divide the work according to agreed-upon hours.

Job simplification standardizes work to create clearly defined and highly specialized tasks.

Lack-of-participation error occurs when important people are excluded from the decision-making process.

Lateral communication is the flow of messages at the same levels across organizations.

Law of contingent reinforcement states a reward should only be given when the desired behavior occurs.

Law of effect states that behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated; behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is not.

Law of immediate reinforcement states a reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior occurs.

Law of reciprocity says that if someone does something for someone else it will invoke a sense of obligation to return the favor.

Leader match training is when leaders are trained to diagnose the situation to match their high and low LPC scores with situational control.

Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory emphasizes the quality of the working relationship between leaders and followers.

Leadership is the process of influencing others and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.

Leadership grid is an approach that uses a grid that places concern for production on the horizontal axis and concern for people on the vertical axis.

Leadership process involves individuals (followers) being influenced by others (leaders).

Leading creates enthusiasm to work hard to accomplish tasks successfully.

Leaking pipeline is a phrase coined to describe how women have not reached the highest levels of organizations.

Learning is an enduring change in behavior that results from experience.

Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) scale is a measure of a person's leadership style based on a description of the person with whom respondents have been able to work least well.

Legitimate power or formal authority is the extent to which a manager can use the “right of command” to control other people.

Lifelong learning is continuous learning from everyday experiences.

Line units are workgroups that conduct the major business of the organization.

Locus of control is the extent a person feels able to control his or her own life and is concerned with a person's internal-external orientation.

Long-term/short-term orientation is the degree to which a culture emphasizes long-term or short-term thinking.

Low-context cultures express messages mainly by the spoken and written word.

Lower-order needs in Maslow's hierarchy are physiological, safety, and social.

Machiavellianism causes someone to view and manipulate others purely for personal gain.

Maintenance activities support the emotional life of the team as an ongoing social system.

Management by objectives is a process of joint goal setting between a supervisor and a subordinate.

Management philosophy links key goal-related issues with key collaboration issues to come up with general ways by which the firm will manage its affairs.

Management process involves fulfilling the four responsibilities of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

Managerial script is a series of well-known routines for problem identification and alternative generation and analysis common to managers within a firm.

Managerial wisdom is the ability to perceive variations in the environment and understand the social actors and their relationships.

Managers are persons who support the work efforts of other people.

Masculinity-femininity is the degree to which a society values assertiveness or relationships.

Matrix departmentation is a combination of functional and divisional patterns wherein an individual is assigned to more than one type of unit.

Mechanistic type or machine bureaucracy emphasizes vertical specialization with impersonal coordination and a heavy reliance on standardization, formalization, rules, policies, and procedures.

Merit pay links an individual's salary or wage increase directly to measures of performance accomplishment.

Mimicry is the copying of the successful practices of others.

Mission statements are written statements of organizational purpose.

Models are simplified views of reality that attempt to explain real-world phenomena.

Moods are generalized positive and negative feelings or states of mind.

Moral dilemma involves a choice between two or more ethically uncomfortable alternatives.

Moral manager makes ethical behavior a personal goal.

Moral problem poses major ethical consequences for the decision maker or others.

Motivation refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.

Motivator factors in the job content are sources of job satisfaction.

Multicultural organization is a firm that values diversity but systematically works to block the transfer of societally based subcultures into the fabric of the organization.

Multiculturalism refers to pluralism and respect for diversity in the workplace.

Multiskilling is a state in which team members are each capable of performing many different jobs.

Mum effect occurs when people are reluctant to communicate bad news.

Need for achievement (nAch) is the desire to do better, solve problems, or master complex tasks.

Need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and warm relations with others.

Need for power (nPower) is the desire to control others and influence their behavior.

Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by making the avoidance of an undesirable consequence contingent on its occurrence.

Negotiation is the process of making joint decisions when the parties involved have different preferences.

Noise is anything that interferes with the effectiveness of communication.

Nominal group technique involves structured rules for generating and prioritizing ideas.

Nonprogrammed decisions are created to deal specifically with a problem at hand.

Nonverbal communication occurs through facial expressions, body motions, eye contact, and other physical gestures.

Norming stage is when members work together as a coordinated team.

Norms are rules or standards for the behavior of group members.

Observable culture is the way things are done in an organization.

Open systems transform human and material resource inputs into finished goods and services.

Operant conditioning is the control of behavior by manipulating its consequences.

Operations technology is the combination of resources, knowledge, and techniques that creates a product or service output for an organization.

Optimism is the expectation of positive outcomes.

Optimizing decisions give the absolute best solution to a problem.

Organic type or professional bureaucracy emphasizes horizontal specialization, extensive use of personal coordination, and loose rules, policies, and procedures.

Organizational behavior is the study of individuals and groups in organizations.

Organizational behavior modification is the use of extrinsic rewards to systematically reinforce desirable work behavior and discourage undesirable behavior.

Organizational charts are diagrams that depict the formal structures of organizations.

Organizational citizenship behaviors are the extras people do to go the additional distance in their work.

Organizational climate represents shared perceptions of members regarding what the organization is like in terms of management policies and practices.

Organizational commitment is the loyalty of an individual to the organization.

Organizational cultural lag is a condition in which dominant cultural patterns are inconsistent with new emerging innovations.

Organizational culture is a shared set of beliefs and values within an organization.

Organizational design is the process of choosing and implementing a structural configuration for an organization.

Organizational governance is the pattern of authority, influence, and acceptable managerial behavior established at the top of the organization.

Organizational justice concerns the degree to which people view workplace practices as fair and equitable.

Organizational learning is the process of knowledge acquisition, information distribution, information interpretation, and organizational retention.

Organizational myth is a commonly held cause-effect relationship or assertion that cannot be supported empirically.

Organizational or corporate culture is the system of shared actions, values, and beliefs that develops within an organization and guides the behavior of its members.

Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned means and the art of creative compromise among competing interests.

Organizations are collections of people working together to achieve a common purpose.

Organizing divides up tasks and arranges resources to accomplish them.

Out-group occurs when one does not feel part of a group and experiences discomfort and low belongingness.

Output controls are controls that focus on desired targets and allow managers to use their own methods for reaching defined targets.

Output goals are the goals that define the type of business an organization is in.

Output measures of performance assess achievements in terms of actual work results.

Paired comparison in performance appraisal compares each person with every other.

Parochialism assumes the ways of your culture are the only ways of doing things.

Participative leadership focuses on consulting with subordinates and seeking and taking their suggestions into account before making decisions.

Passive followership beliefs are beliefs that followers should be passive, deferent, and obedient to authority.

Path-goal view of managerial leadership assumes that a leader's key function is to adjust his or her behaviors to complement situational contingencies.

Patterning of attention involves isolating and communicating what information is important and what is given attention from a potentially endless stream of events, actions, and outcome.

Perceived inequity is feeling under-rewarded or overrewarded in comparison with others.

Perception is the process through which people receive and interpret information from the environment.

Performance gap is a discrepancy between the desired and the actual conditions.

Performance norm sets expectations for how hard members work and what the team should accomplish.

Performance-contingent pay is based on earning more when you produce more and earning less when you produce less.

Performing stage marks the emergence of a mature and well-functioning team.

Personal conception traits represent individuals' major beliefs and personal orientation concerning a range of issues involving social and physical setting.

Personal wellness involves the pursuit of one's job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion program.

Personality is the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others.

Personality traits are enduring characteristics describing an individual's behavior.

Physical distractions include interruptions from noises, visitors, and the like that interfere with communication.

Planned change is a response to someone's perception of a performance gap—a discrepancy between the desired and actual state of affairs.

Planning sets objectives and identifies the actions needed to achieve them.

Political savvy is knowing how to negotiate, persuade, and deal with people regarding goals they will accept.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by making a desirable consequence contingent on its occurrence.

Power is the ability to get someone else to do something you want done, or the ability to make things happen or get things done the way you want.

Power distance is a culture's acceptance of the status and power differences among its members.

Power-oriented behavior is action directed primarily at developing or using relationships in which other people are willing to defer to one's wishes.

Prejudice is the display of negative, irrational, and superior opinions and attitudes toward persons who are different from ourselves.

Presence is the act of speaking without using words.

Presence-aware tools are software programs that allow a user to view others' real-time availability status and readiness to communicate.

Proactive followership beliefs are beliefs that followers should express opinions, take initiative, and constructively question and challenge leaders.

Proactive personality is the disposition that identifies whether or not individuals act to influence their environments.

Problem-focused coping mechanisms manage the problem that is causing the distress.

Problem-solving style reflects the way a person gathers and evaluates information when solving problems and making decisions.

Problem-solving team is set up to deal with a specific problem or opportunity.

Procedural justice is the degree to which rules are always properly followed to implement policies.

Process controls are controls that attempt to specify the manner in which tasks are to be accomplished.

Process innovations introduce into operations new and better ways of doing things.

Process power is the control over methods of production and analysis.

Process theories examine the thought processes that motivate individual behavior.

Product innovations introduce new goods or services to better meet customer needs.

Profit sharing rewards employees in some proportion to changes in organizational profits.

Programmed decisions simply implement solutions that have already been determined by past experience as appropriate for the problem at hand.

Projection assigns personal attributes to other individuals.

Prosocial power motivation is power oriented toward benefiting others.

Prototypes are mental images of the characteristics that comprise an implicit theory.

Proxemics involves the use of space as people interact.

Psychological contract is an unwritten set of expectations about a person's exchange of inducements and contributions with an organization.

Psychological empowerment is a sense of personal fulfillment and purpose that arouses one's feelings of competency and commitment to work.

Punishment discourages a behavior by making an unpleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence.

Quality circle is a team that meets regularly to address quality issues.

Ranking in performance appraisal orders each person from best to worst.

Rational persuasion is the ability to control another's behavior because, through the individual's efforts, the person accepts the desirability of an offered goal and a reasonable way of achieving it.

Rational persuasion strategy uses facts, special knowledge, and rational argument to create change.

Receiver is the individual or group of individuals to whom a message is directed.

Referent power is the ability to control another's behavior because of the individual's desire to identify with the power source.

Reinforcement is the delivery of a consequence as a result of behavior.

Relatedness needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.

Relationship management is the ability to establish rapport with others to build good relationships.

Reliability means a performance measure gives consistent results.

Representative power is the formal right conferred by the firm to speak for and to a potentially important group.

Representativeness heuristic bases a decision on similarities between the situation at hand and stereotypes of similar occurrences.

Resilience is the ability to bounce back from failure and keep forging ahead.

Resistance to change is any attitude or behavior that indicates unwillingness to make or support a desired change.

Restricted communication networks link subgroups that disagree with one another's positions.

Reward power is the extent to which a manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people.

Risk environments provide probabilities regarding expected results for decision-making alternatives.

Risk management involves anticipating risks and factoring them into decision making.

Rites are standardized and recurring activities used at special times to influence the behaviors and understanding of organizational members.

Rituals are systems of rites.

Role is a set of expectations for a team member or person in a job.

Role ambiguity occurs when someone is uncertain about what is expected of him or her.

Role conflict occurs when someone is unable to respond to role expectations that conflict with one another.

Role negotiation is a process for discussing and agreeing upon what team members expect of one another.

Role overload occurs when too much work is expected of the individual.

Role underload occurs when too little work is expected of the individual.

Romance of leadership involves people attributing romantic, almost magical, qualities to leadership.

Rule of conformity states that the greater the cohesiveness, the greater the conformity of members to team norms.

Saga is an embellished heroic account of accomplishments.

Satisficing decisions choose the first alternative that appears to give an acceptable or satisfactory resolution of the problem.

Scanning involves looking outside the firm and bringing back useful solutions.

Schemas are cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about people, objects, or events.

Scientific management uses systematic study of job components to develop practices to increase people's efficiency at work.

Selective listening is when individuals block out information or only hear things that match preconceived notions.

Selective perception is the tendency to define problems from one's own point of view.

Selective screening allows only a portion of available information to enter our perceptions.

Self-awareness is the ability to understand our emotions and their impact on us and others.

Self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, spiritual, or moral beings.

Self-conscious emotions arise from internal sources, and social emotions derive from external sources.

Self-efficacy is an individual's belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a specific task.

Self-esteem is a belief about one's own worth based on an overall self-evaluation.

Self-fulfilling prophecy is creating or finding in a situation that which one expected to find in the first place.

Self-management is the ability to think before acting and control disruptive impulses.

Self-managing teams are empowered to make decisions to manage themselves in day-to-day work.

Self-monitoring is a person's ability to adjust his or her behavior to external situational (environmental) factors.

Self-serving bias underestimates internal factors and overestimates external factors as influences on someone's behavior.

Semantic barriers involve a poor choice or use of words and mixed messages.

Sender is a person or group trying to communicate with someone else.

Shaping is positive reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior.

Shared leadership is a dynamic, interactive influence process through which individuals in teams lead one another.

Shared-power strategy uses participatory methods and emphasizes common values to create change.

Simple design is a configuration involving one or two ways of specializing individuals and units.

Situational control is the extent to which leaders can determine what their groups are going to do and what the outcomes of their actions are going to be.

Situational leadership model focuses on the situational contingency of maturity or “readiness” of followers.

Skill is an ability to turn knowledge into effective action.

Skill-based pay rewards people for acquiring and developing job-relevant skills.

Smart workforces work in shifting communities of action where knowledge and skills are shared to solve real and complex problems.

Social awareness is the ability to empathize and understand the emotions of others.

Social capital is a capacity to get things done due to relationships with other people.

Social construction approaches describe individual behavior as “constructed” in context, as people act and interact in situations.

Social exchange means that people build human relationships and trust through exchanges of favors based on reciprocity.

Social facilitation is the tendency for one's behavior to be influenced by the presence of others in a group.

Social identity theory is a theory developed to understand the psychological basis of discrimination.

Social learning theory describes how learning occurs through interactions among people, behavior, and environment.

Social loafing occurs when people work less hard in groups than they would individually.

Social network analysis identifies the informal structures and their embedded social relationships that are active in an organization.

Social traits are surface-level traits that reflect the way a person appears to others when interacting in social settings.

Societal goals reflect the intended contributions of an organization to the broader society.

Span of control refers to the number of individuals reporting to a supervisor.

Specific environment is the set of owners, suppliers, distributors, government agencies, and competitors with which an organization must interact to grow and survive.

Spotlight questions expose a decision to public scrutiny and full transparency.

Staff units assist the line units by performing specialized services to the organization.

Stakeholders are people and groups with an interest or “stake” in the performance of the organization.

Standardization is the degree to which the range of actions in a job or series of jobs is limited.

Status congruence involves consistency between a person's status within and outside a group.

Status differences are differences between persons of higher and lower ranks.

Stereotype assigns attributes commonly associated with a group to an individual.

Stereotyping occurs when people make a generalization, usually exaggerated or oversimplified (and potentially offensive), that is used to describe or distinguish a group.

Stigma is a phenomenon whereby an individual is rejected as a result of an attribute that is deeply discredited by his or her society.

Stock options give the right to purchase shares at a fixed price in the future.

Storming stage is one of high emotionality and tension among team members.

Strategic leadership is leadership of a quasi-independent unit, department, or organization.

Strategy positions the organization in the competitive environment and implements actions to compete successfully.

Stress is tension from extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities.

Subcultures are groups exhibiting unique patterns of values and philosophies not consistent with the dominant culture of the larger organization or system.

Substantive conflict involves fundamental disagreement over ends or goals to be pursued and the means for their accomplishment.

Substitutes for leadership make a leader's influence either unnecessary or redundant in that they replace a leader's influence.

Supportive communication principles are a set of tools focused on joint problem solving.

Supportive leadership focuses on subordinate needs, well-being, and promotion of a friendly work climate.

Surface-level diversity involves individual differences in visible attributes such as race, sex, age, and physical abilities.

Synergy is the creation of a whole greater than the sum of its parts.

Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational and analytical fashion.

Systems goals are concerned with the conditions within the organization that are expected to increase its survival potential.

Task activities directly contribute to the performance of important tasks.

Task performance consists of the quantity and quality of work produced.

Team is a group of people holding themselves collectively accountable for using complementary skills to achieve a common purpose.

Team building is a collaborative way to gather and analyze data to improve teamwork.

Team composition is the mix of abilities, skills, personalities, and experiences that the members bring to the team.

Team decisions are made by all members of the team.

Teamwork occurs when team members live up to their collective accountability for goal accomplishment.

Technical skill is an ability to perform specialized tasks.

Telecommuting is working at home or from a remote location using computers and advanced telecommunications.

Terminal values reflect a person's preferences concerning the “ends” to be achieved.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals against employment discrimination on the basis of race and color, as well as national origin, sex, and religion.

Trait perspectives assume that traits play a central role in differentiating between leaders and nonleaders or in predicting leader or organizational outcomes.

Transactional leadership involves leader-follower exchanges necessary for achieving routine performance agreed upon between leaders and followers.

Transformational change radically shifts the fundamental character of an organization.

Transformational leadership occurs when leaders broaden and elevate followers' interests and stir followers to look beyond their own interests to the good of others.

Two-factor theory identifies job context as the source of job dissatisfaction and job content as the source of job satisfaction.

Type A orientations are characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and a more competitive nature than Type B.

Type B orientations are characterized by an easygoing and less competitive nature than Type A.

Uncertain environments provide no information to predict expected results for decision-making alternatives.

Uncertainty avoidance is the cultural tendency to be uncomfortable with uncertainty and risk in everyday life.

Universal design is the practice of designing products, buildings, public spaces, and programs to be usable by the greatest number of people.

Unplanned change occurs spontaneously or randomly.

Upward communication is the flow of messages from lower to higher organizational levels.

Upward delegation means passing problems or responsibilities upward in the hierarchy.

Valence is the value to the individual of various work outcomes.

Validity means a performance measure addresses job-relevant dimensions.

Value chain is a sequence of activities that creates valued goods and services for customers.

Value congruence occurs when individuals express positive feelings upon encountering others who exhibit values similar to their own.

Values are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes.

Vertical specialization is a hierarchical division of labor that distributes formal authority.

Vicarious learning involves capturing the lessons of others' experiences.

Virtual communication networks link team members through electronic communication.

Virtual organization is an ever-shifting constellation of firms, with a lead corporation, that pools skills, resources, and experiences to thrive jointly.

Virtual teams work together through computer mediation.

Work sharing is when employees agree to work fewer hours to avoid layoffs.

Workforce diversity is a mix of people within a workforce who are considered to be, in some way, different from those in the prevailing constituency.

Zone of indifference is the range of authoritative requests to which a subordinate is willing to respond without subjecting the directives to critical evaluation or judgment.