Self-Test Answers
Self-Test Answers 1
Multiple Choice
1. b 2. d 3. c 4. c 5. c 6. b 7. c 8. a 9. d 10. d 11. a 12. c 13. c 14. c 15. a
Short Response
16. OB as a scientific discipline has the following characteristics: (a) It is an interdisciplinary body of knowledge, drawing upon insights from such allied social sciences as sociology and psychology. (b) OB researchers use scientific methods to develop and test models and theories about human behavior in organizations. (c) OB focuses on application, trying to develop from science practical insights that can improve organizations. (d) OB uses contingency thinking, trying to fit explanations to situations rather than trying to find “one best” answer that fits all situations.
17. The term valuing diversity is used to describe behavior that respects individual differences. In the workplace this means respecting the talents and potential contributions of people from different races and of different genders, ethnicities, and ages, for example.
18. Emotional intelligence is an ability to understand and manage emotions well, both personally and in interactions with others. Self-regulation is an important emotional intelligence competency. It is the capacity to think before taking action, and thus make sure that actions are functional rather than dysfunctional. It is the capacity to quickly spot tendencies to behave in disruptive or unhelpful ways due to an emotional reaction to a person or situation, and then control those tendencies to avoid bad behavior.
19. Just being a manager—having the job title, doesn't guarantee that a person will be an effective leader. A true leader is someone who interacts with and influences others to do things that are good for the team or organization. This person uses influence to attract followers not due to the authority of a position-such as being designated the manager, supervisor, or team leader-but by virtue of what he or she knows, values, and can accomplish. Indeed, leaders don't have to be managers, and they don't have to be formally designated. A “leader” can emerge in a team without authority but still end up being highly influential in bringing about change and moving others to do things that support team accomplishments.
Applications Essay
20. Carla is about to lead an important discussion since the world of work will certainly be different by the time these sixth-graders are ready to enter the workforce. As they look ahead, she should encourage them to consider the following points:
- Commitment to ethical behavior
- Importance of knowledge and experience in the form of “human capital”
- Less emphasis on boss-centered “command and control”
- Emphasis on teamwork
- Emphasis on use of computers and information technology
- Respect for people and their work expectations
- More people working for themselves and more job/employer shifting by people; fewer people working an entire lifetime for one organization
Of course, one of Carla's greatest challenges will be to express these concepts in words and examples that sixth-graders will understand. Your answer should reflect that use of language and examples.
Self-Test Answers 2
Multiple Choice
1. d 2. c 3. b 4. a 5. b 6. c 7. d 8. b 9. a 10. c 11. b 12. d 13. c 14. a 15. d
Short Response
16. Individual differences reflect the ways in which people are similar and how they vary in their thinking, feeling, and behavior. They are important in organizational behavior because by categorizing behavioral tendencies of different types of people, and then identifying groups to which individuals (including ourselves) belong, we can more accurately predict why and how people behave as they do.
17. Both nature and nurture are important, and research isn't conclusive as to whether one is more influential than the other. Some studies show there is a 50–50 split, and the twin studies show that about 32 percent of variance in leadership is related to nurture. What is clear is that who we are is affected by both the genes we inherit and the environments in which we are raised.
18. Meglino and colleagues found that the most common values held by people in the workplace are those related to achievement, helping and concern for others, honesty, and fairness. When individuals in organizations share values with those around them, they experience greater satisfaction; when their values differ from those around them, they may experience conflict over such things as goals and how to achieve them.
19. Environments that are most conducive to diversity are those that appreciate differences, create a setting where everyone feels valued and accepted, and recognize the benefits diversity brings to workplace and organizational functioning. Such environments offer commitment to inclusion from the highest levels, opportunities for networking and mentoring, and role models and exposure to high-visibility assignments for diverse groups.
Applications Essay
20. The first step would be to identify the source of the stress. It is important at this stage to gather data from multiple perspectives (e.g., employees, managers, HR) and to create a safe environment for people to provide input to ensure accurate information. Factors you should consider are these: Is the stress due to personal issues of employees, or workplace issues? Are some employees more stressed than others, and if so why? How do individual differences come into play, if at all? What workplace or organizational factors are causing the stress? How much agreement is there about the causes of the stress? What are the effects of the stress, and who is most affected? Once you have gathered enough information that you are satisfied you have a complete picture of the situation, develop an action plan. This plan should (a) address the appropriate source, (b) be realistic and impactful, and (c) not cause more stress. Typically many stress issues can be resolved with good communication and support, and by working with individuals to find ways they can manage the factors causing their stress. Managers must be careful to avoid environments that are highly stressful and lead to burnout, such as fear climates, environments that are too individually competitive (pitting employees against one another), not dealing with poor performers, overly stressful change situations, and bad communication. The most promising plan of action would be one that helps both employees and managers understand specific steps and techniques for reducing stress.
Self-Test Answers 3
Multiple Choice
1. b 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. a 9. a 10. d 11. c 12. c 13. c 14. a 15. a
Short Response
16. A model should be constructed to show information flowing in from the environment and eventually resulting in some individual response-feeling, thinking, or acting. In between the input and the response influences such as the characteristics of the perceiver, the setting, and what is being perceived should be identified. Your answer should include for four stages of information processing: attention and selection, organization, interpretation, and retrieval.
17. There are six perceptual distortions listed and discussed in this chapter: stereotype, halo effect, selective perception, projection, contrast, and self-fulfilling prophecies. Select any two and briefly note how they distort the perceptual process.
18. The law of effect states that a behavior followed by a pleasant consequence is likely to be repeated and a behavior followed by an unpleasant consequence is unlikely to be repeated. Managers and people at work deal regularly with others who exhibit desirable and undesirable behaviors. By understanding the law of effect, they should be able to strengthen the desired behaviors and weaken the undesired ones by manipulating consequences.
19. Reinforcement learning focuses on behavior as a function of its consequences, whereas social learning theory emphasizes observational learning and the importance of perception and attribution. Thus, people respond to how their perceptions and attributions help define consequences, and not to the objective consequences as emphasized in reinforcement learning.
Applications Essay
20. A good example to illustrate attribution is the fundamental attribution error as opposed to the self-serving bias. You should explain the fundamental attribution error as the tendency to underestimate the influence of situational factors and to overestimate the influence of personal factors in evaluating someone else's behaviors. In contrast, the self-serving bias is the tendency to deny personal responsibility for performance problems but accept personal responsibility for performance success. Then follow up with an example of each and implications for managing the department.
Self-Test Answers 4
Multiple Choice
1. d 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. a 8. c 9. a 10. d 11. a 12. d 13. d 14. c 15. c
Short Response
16. Emotions and moods are both part of what is called affect, or the range of feelings that people experience in their life context. An emotion is a strong positive or negative feeling directed toward someone or something. It is usually intense, not long lasting, and always associated with a source: someone or something that makes you feel the way you do. An example is the positive emotion of elation a student feels when congratulated by an instructor. A mood is a more generalized positive and negative feeling or state of mind that may persist for some time. An example is someone who wakes up and feels grouchy that day.
17. The three components of an attitude are cognition, affect, and behavior. Cognition might occur as the belief that “I think being a management major is important to my future career.” Affect might occur as “I feel really good about taking this organizational behavior course.” Behavior might occur in responses to the intention “I am going to study hard and earn an A in the course.” The cognition influences affect, which influences intended behavior. But the behavior is only an intention. As we well know, lots of things happen during a semester that might lead an otherwise well-intentioned management major who likes his or her OB course to not study hard enough to earn an A grade.
18. Five aspects of job satisfaction that are commonly measured are (1) work itself: responsibility, interest, and growth; (2) quality of supervision: technical and social support; (3) relationships with co-workers: social harmony and respect; (4) promotion opportunities: chances for further advancement; (5) pay: adequacy and perceived equity vis-à-vis others. Although it depends on the individual and the context, in general each of these can be considered equally important.
19. Cognitive dissonance describes a state of inconsistency between an individual's attitudes and his or her behavior. Such inconsistency can result in changing attitudes, changing future behavior, or developing new ways to explain the inconsistency. The amount of control an individual has over the situation and the magnitude of the reward tend to influence which of these actions will be chosen.
Applications Essay
20. The heart of the issue rests with the satisfaction-performance relationship as discussed in this chapter. Does satisfaction cause performance? It appears that satisfaction alone is no guarantee of high-level job performance. Although a satisfied worker is likely not to quit and to have good attendance, his or her performance still remains uncertain. In the integrated model of motivation, performance is a function of motivation and effort as well as individual attributes and organizational support. Thus I would be cautious in focusing only on creating satisfied and high-performing workers. I would try to make sure that the rewards for performance create satisfaction. I would also try to make sure that the satisfied worker has the right abilities, training, and other support needed to perform a job really well. Assuming that satisfaction alone will always lead to high performance seems risky at best; it leaves too many other important considerations left untouched, an example of which is described in the study of satisfaction in groups across time.
Self-Test Answers 5
Multiple Choice
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. b 5. d 6. d 7. d 8. c 9. a 10. a 11. c 12. a 13. d 14. a 15. b
Short Response
16. Basically, the frustration-regression principle in Alderfer's ERG theory states that when one level of need is unsatisfied (or frustrated) the individual can revert back (or regress) to seek further satisfaction of a lower level need. For example, if a need for psychological growth in one's job is frustrated, the person may regress back to place more emphasis on satisfying relatedness needs.
17. According to Herzberg, the job content or satisfier factors are what really motivate people to work hard. They include such things as feelings of responsibility, opportunities for advancement and growth, and job challenges. To build these things into jobs and make them more motivational, Herzberg recommends job enrichment—that is, adding job content factors by moving into a job things traditionally done by higher levels, such as planning and controlling responsibilities.
18. Distributive justice is when everyone is treated by the same rules with no one getting special favors or exceptions; procedural justice is when all rules and procedures are properly followed.
19. Expectancy theory states that Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence. The presence of multiplication signs creates the multiplier effect. This means that a zero in expectancy or instrumentality or valence creates a zero for motivation. In other words, the multiplier effect is that all three factors—expectancy, instrumentality, valence—must be positive in order for motivation to be positive.
Applications Essay
20. The issue in this case boils down to motivation to work hard. A job might provide lots of satisfaction for someone—relationships, good pay, and so on—and they may not work hard because there is no link between receiving the need satisfaction and doing a really good job every day. To apply the needs theories of motivation, managers need to link opportunities for need satisfaction with tasks and activities that are important to getting the job done well. In other words, hard work on things important to the organization are viewed as pathways toward individual need satisfaction. In this case, as perhaps Person B would be suggesting, individuals will work hard because they are satisfying important needs by doing important job-relevant things.
Self-Test Answers 6
Multiple Choice
1. d 2. c 3. b 4. b 5. a 6. c 7. b 8. d 9. c 10. d 11. c 12. d 13. d 14. a 15. a
Short Response
16. In a traditional evaluation, the employee's performance is evaluated by the supervisor. In the 360° evaluation the employee's performance is evaluated by those with whom he or she works, including supervisor, peers, subordinates, and perhaps even customers. The 360° evaluation also typically includes a self-evaluation. When the results of all evaluations are analyzed and compared, the employee has a good sense of his or her accomplishments and areas for improvement. This evaluation can then be discussed with the supervisor.
17. A halo error in performance appraisal occurs when one attribute or behavior inappropriately influences the overall appraisal. For example, an individual may have a unique style of dress but be a very high performer. If the evaluator lets his or her distaste for the dress style negatively bias the overall performance evaluation, a halo error has occurred. A recency error occurs when a performance appraisal is biased due to the influence of recent events. In other words, the performance appraisal is based on most recent performance and may not be an accurate reflection of performance for a full evaluation period. For example, just prior to an evaluation I might have had a very bad week due to family problems. If my supervisor uses that week's performance to negatively bias the evaluation even though for the prior six months I had been a very strong performer, recency error would have occurred.
18. Growth-need strength is a moderator variable in the job characteristics model. In other words, it sets the condition under which an individual will or will not respond positively to the job characteristics. When an individual is high in growth-need strength, the prediction is that he or she will respond positively to a job high in the core characteristics and therefore largely enriched. However, when the individual has low-growth-need strength, the prediction is that he or she will not respond positively to high core characteristics and may be dissatisfied and less productive in such enriched job conditions.
19. The compressed workweek, or 4/40 schedule, offers employees the advantage of a three-day weekend. However, it can cause problems for the employer in terms of ensuring that operations are covered adequately during the normal five-day workweek. Also, the compressed workweek will entail more complicated work scheduling. In addition, some employees find that the schedule is tiring and can cause family adjustment problems.
Applications Essay
20. Many things can be done to use rewards and performance management well in the context of student organizations. On the reward side, the most appropriate thing is to make sure that those who get the benefits from the organization are the ones who do the work. For example, if there is a fund-raiser to support a student trip, only those who actively raise the money should get financial support for the trip. Possibly, the financial support should be proportionate to the amount of time and effort each person contributed toward raising the funds. Also, it is probably quite common that little or no evaluation is done of how people perform in offices and special assignments in the student organizations. Many possible ways of creating and using more formal evaluation systems could be established. For example, officers could be rated on a BARS scale developed by the membership to reflect the desirable officer behaviors. These ratings could take place every month or two, and individuals who perform poorly can be counseled or removed, whereas those who perform well can be praised and continued.
Self-Test Answers 7
Multiple Choice
1. a 2. b 3. d 4. c 5. b 6. d 7. b 8. d 9. d 10. c 11. b 12. c 13. d 14. c 15. c
Short Response
16. Teams are potentially good for organizations for several reasons: They are good for people, they can improve creativity, they sometimes make the best decisions, they gain commitment to decisions, they help control the behavior of their members, and they can help to counterbalance the effects of large organization size.
17. Permanent formal groups appear on organization charts and serve an ongoing purpose. These groups may include departments, divisions, teams, and the like. Temporary groups are created to solve a specific problem or perform a defined task and are then disbanded. Examples are committees, cross-functional task forces, and project teams.
18. Self-managing teams take different forms. A common pattern, however, involves empowering team members to make decisions about the division of labor and scheduling, to develop and maintain the skills needed to perform several different jobs for the team, to help train one another to learn those jobs, and to help select new team members.
19. The diversity-consensus dilemma occurs when a team with high membership diversity gets caught between diversity advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, the team has the potential advantages of many viewpoints, perspectives, and enriched information. On the other hand, it suffers the potential pitfalls of members having a hard time learning how to work well with one another; this can make it hard to reach consensus.
Applications Essay
20. “Saw your message and wanted to respond. Don't worry. There is no reason at all that a great design engineer can't run a high-performance project team. Go into the job with confidence, but try to follow some basic guidelines as you build and work with the team. First off, remember that a “team” isn't just a “group.” You have to make sure that the members—and that includes you—identify highly with the goals and will hold themselves collectively accountable for results. I suggest that you communicate high-performance standards right from the beginning. Set the tone in the first team meeting and even create a sense of urgency to get things going. Be sure that the members have the right skills, and find ways to create some early “successes” for them. Don't let them drift apart; make sure they spend a lot of time together. Give lots of positive feedback as the project develops and, perhaps most important, model the expected behaviors yourself. Go for it!”
Self-Test Answers 8
Multiple Choice
1. d 2. a 3. a 4. b 5. b 6. c 7. c 8. a 9. b 10. b 11. a 12. d 13. a 14. a 15. c
Short Response
16. Team building usually begins when someone notices that a problem exists or may develop in the group. Members then work collaboratively to gather data, analyze the situation, plan for improvements, and implement the plan. Everyone is expected to participate in each step, and the group as a whole is expected to benefit from continuous improvement.
17. To help build positive norms, a team leader must first act as a positive role model. She or he should carefully select members for the team and be sure to reinforce and reward members for performing as desired. She or he should also hold meetings to review performance, provide feedback, and discuss and agree on goals.
18. A basic rule of team dynamics is that members of highly cohesive groups tend to conform to group norms. Thus, when group norms are positive for performance, the conformity is likely to create high-performance outcomes. When the norms are negative, however, the conformity is likely to create low-performance outcomes.
19. Inter-team competition can create problems in the way groups work with one another. Ideally, an organization is a cooperative system in which groups are well integrated and help one another out as needed. When groups get competitive, however, there is a potential dysfunctional side. Instead of communicating with one another, they decrease communication. Instead of viewing one another positively, they develop negative stereotypes of one another. Instead of viewing each other as mutual partners in the organization, they become hostile and view one another more as enemies. Although inter-team competition can be good by adding creative tension and encouraging more focused efforts, this potential negative side should not be forgotten.
Applications Essay
20. I would tell Alejandro that consensus and unanimity are different, but related. Consensus results from extensive discussion and lots of give and take during which group members share ideas and listen carefully to one another. Eventually, one alternative emerges that is preferred by most. Those who disagree, however, know that they have been listened to and have had a fair chance to influence the decision outcome. Consensus, therefore, does not require unanimity. What it does require is the opportunity for any dissenting members to feel they have been able to speak and be listened to sincerely. A decision by unanimity that generates 100 percent agreement on an issue may be the ideal state of affairs, but it is not always possible to achieve. Thus, Alejandro should always try to help members work together intensively, communicate well with one another, and sincerely share ideas and listen. However, he should not be concerned for complete unanimity on every issue. Rather, consensus should be the agreed-on goal in most cases.
Self-Test Answers 9
Multiple Choice
1. c 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. b 6. a 7. a 8. c 9. a 10. c 11. b 12. a 13. b 14. c 15. d
Short Response
16. Heuristics are simplifying strategies, or “rules of thumb” that people use to make decisions. They make it easier for individuals to deal with uncertainty and limited information, but they can also lead to biased results. Common heuristics include availability-making decisions based on recent events; representativeness-making decisions based on similar events; and anchoring and adjustment-making decisions based on historical precedents.
17. Individual, or authority, decisions are made by the manager or team leader acting alone based on information that he or she possesses. Consultative decisions are made by the manager or team leader after soliciting input from other persons. Group decisions are made when the manager or team leader asks others to participate in problem solving. The ideal form of the group decision is true consensus.
18. Escalating commitment is the tendency to continue with a previously chosen course of action even though feedback indicates that it is not working. This can lead to a waste of time, money, and other resources, in addition to the sacrificing of the opportunity to pursue a course of action offering more valuable results. Escalating commitment is encouraged by the popular adage “If at first you don't succeed, try, try, again.” Another way to look at it is “throwing good money after bad.”
19. Most people are too busy to respond personally to every problem that comes their way. The effective manager and team leader knows when to delegate decisions to others, how to set priorities, and when to abstain from acting altogether. Questions to ask include these: Is the problem easy to deal with? Might the problem resolve itself? Is this my decision to make? Is this a solvable problem within the context of the organization?
Applications Essay
20. This is what I would say in the mentoring situation: First, teams can be great for creativity but they have to be set up and then led so that their creative potential is fully realized. To start with, the team needs to have at least some highly creative members. They bring to the team context valuable insights, new ideas, and enthusiasm for finding new ways of doing things. These are people who already have strong creativity skills such as high energy, resourcefulness, intuition, and lateral thinking. With people like this as part of the team it will have a strong baseline of team creativity skills in place. Then it is important to give this team management and organizational support to harness this creativity potential. The team leader has to believe in and want team creativity, he or she has to be patient and allow time for creative processes to work, and he or she also needs to make sure the team has all the resources it needs to do creative work. An organizational culture in which creativity is valued is also an asset since it provides a broader context of support for what the team is trying to accomplish. When people throughout the organization value creativity, it tends to pull others along and also support their creative efforts. When creativity is expected and even evaluated as part of performance appraisals, it is also further encouraged by the surrounding organizational context.
Self-Test Answers 10
Multiple Choice
1. c 2. a 3. b 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. b 8. c 9. d 10. c 11. a 12. c 13. c 14. a 15. b
Short Response
16. Managers can be faced with the following conflict situations: vertical conflict—conflict that occurs between hierarchical levels; horizontal conflict—conflict that occurs between those at the same hierarchical level; line-staff conflict—conflict that occurs between line and staff representatives; role conflict—conflict that occurs when the communication of task expectations is inadequate or upsetting.
17. The major indirect conflict management approaches include the following: appeals to common goals—involves focusing the attention of potentially conflicting parties on one mutually desirable conclusion; hierarchical referral—using the chain of command for conflict resolution; organizational redesign—including decoupling, buffering, linking pins, and liaison groups; use of myths and scripts—managing superficially through behavioral routines (scripts) or to hide conflict by denying the necessity to make a trade-off in conflict resolution.
18. You should acknowledge that different styles may be appropriate under different conditions. Avoidance is the extreme form of nonattention and is most commonly used when the issue is trivial, when more important issues are pressing, or when individuals need to cool off. An accommodation strategy is used when an issue is more important to the other party than it is to you, or to build social credits.
19. Distributive negotiation focuses on staking out positions and claiming portions of the available “pie.” It usually takes the form of hard negotiation—the parties maximize their self-interests and hold out to get their own way—or soft negotiation—one party is willing to make concessions in order to reach an agreement. Distributive negotiation can lead to competition, compromise, or accommodation, but it tends to be win-lose oriented in all cases. Integrative negotiation focuses on the merits of an issue and attempts to enlarge the available “pie.” It may lead to avoidance, compromise, or collaboration. It tends to be more win-win oriented and seeks to satisfy the needs and interests of all parties.
Applications Essay
20. When negotiating the salary for your first job, you should attempt to avoid the common pitfalls of negotiation. These include falling prey to the myth of the fixed “pie”; nonrational escalation of conflict, such as trying to compare the proposed salary to the highest offer you have heard; overconfidence; and ignoring other's needs (the personnel officer probably has a fixed limit). The initial salary may be very important to you, but you should also recognize that it may not be as significant as what type of job you will have and whether you will have an opportunity to move up in the firm.
Self-Test Answers 11
Multiple Choice
1. d 2. c 3. a 4. b 5. a 6. a 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. d 11. b 12. a 13. c 14. d 15. a
Short Response
16. Channel richness is a useful concept for managers because it describes the capacity of a communication channel to convey and move information. For example, if a manager wants to convey basic and routine information to a lot of people, a lean channel such as the electronic bulletin or written memorandum may be sufficient. However, if the manager needs to convey a complicated message and one that may involve some uncertainty, a richer channel such as the face-to-face meeting may be necessary. Simply put, the choice of channel may have a lot of impact on the effectiveness of a communication attempt.
17. Informal communication channels are very important in today's organizations. Modern work environments place great emphasis on cross-functional relationships and communication. Employee involvement and participation in decision making are very important. This requires that people know and talk with one another, often across departmental lines. Progressive organizations make it easy for people to interact and meet outside of formal work assignments and relationships. When people know one another, they can more easily and frequently communicate with one another.
18. Status effects can interfere with the effectiveness of communication between lower and higher levels in an organization. Lower-level members are concerned about how the higher-level members will respond, especially if the information being communicated is negative or unfavorable. In such cases, a tendency exists to filter or modify the information to make it as attractive as possible to the recipient. The result is that high-level decision makers in organizations sometimes act on inaccurate or incomplete information. Although their intentions are good, they just aren't getting good information from their subordinates.
19. Active listening works by increasing the flow of information to help the communicator analyze the issue being processed. In active listening, the focus should be on the communicator, not the listener. At the beginning of the conversation the listener helps increase information flow to open up communication by listening for content and feelings. The listener also uses reinforcing statements to support those feelings and create a safe environment. Once the information has been processed, the listener helps the communicator identify a course of action by turning to reflecting and advising statements that help represent what the communicator expressed.
Applications Essay
20. Organizations depend on communication flowing upward, downward, and laterally. Rapid developments in technology have led to a heavy reliance on computers to assist in the movement of this information. E-mail is one part of an electronic organizational communication system. Research suggests that people may fall prey to the “impersonality” of computer-based operations and that the personal or face-to-face side of communication may suffer. Rather than eliminate e-mail and other forms of computermediated communication, however, the managing director should work hard to establish proper e-mail protocols and provide many other avenues for communication. The managing director can serve as a role model in his or her use of e-mail, in being regularly available for face-to-face interactions, by holding regular meetings, and by “wandering around” frequently to meet and talk with people from all levels. In addition, the director can make sure that facility designs and office arrangements support interaction and make it less easy for people to disappear behind computer screens. Finally, the director must actively encourage communication of all types without getting trapped into serving as a classic example of the “e-mail boss.”
Self-Test Answers 12
Multiple Choice
1. b 2. d 3. c 4. a 5. d 6. c 7. a 8. b 9. c 10. b 11. d 12. a 13. c 14. b 15. d
Short Response
16. An individual's power is directly proportional to the dependence others have on him or her. If a dependency can be easily removed, an individual has power only as long as the other is willing to give it to him or her. If a dependency cannot be easily removed, an individual has little choice but to go along.
17. Powerlessness is a problem in organizations because it can create spirals of helplessness and alienation. When people feel powerless, they try to regain some sense of control over themselves and their work environment. The resulting behaviors can be extremely detrimental to organizations (e.g., absenteeism, tardiness, theft, vandalism, grievances, shoddy workmanship, and counterproductive behavior).
18. Position power comes from the formal hierarchy or authority vested in a particular role, whereas personal power is generated in relationships with others. You can tell if the power one holds is position or personal because personal power goes with the individual when he or she leaves a position.
19. Organizational politics involve efforts by organizational members to seek resources and achieve desired goals through informal systems and structures. Most politics involve workarounds, which means working around the system to accomplish a task or goal when the normal process or method isn't producing the desired result. In less political environments, actions are more direct and straightforward (more rational); in more political environments, individuals need to interpret and watch out for behaviors happening behind the scenes.
Applications Essay
20. Cristos should be careful not to get sucked into any negative political behaviors of others and build his power bases so they are available for him to use when needed. He should work to be in the know and connected but not become part of a political coalition that uses power and politics negatively, in ways that are self-interested and disadvantage others and the organization.
Cristos can build his power bases by establishing competence and value added to the organization (position and personal power) and developing organizational and professional networks (information and connection power). He should make himself non-substitutable.
He should also develop his political savvy, which is skill and adroitness at reading political environments and understanding how to influence effectively in these environments. One of the best ways to do this is by finding a mentor or sponsor who can provide him with developmental feedback and coaching in how to interpret and respond to the political environment in the organization.
Self-Test Answers 13
Multiple Choice
1. a 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. a 6. b 7. d 8. c 9. d 10. b 11. a 12. b 13. d 14. c 15. c
Short Response
16. Social construction describes leadership as generated in relational interactions among people and in context. As a result leadership is dynamic, developing, and changing over time. This means there is no one-size-fits-all solution in leadership, and leaders need to be flexible and adaptive to be able to adjust to the needs of the context and the actors.
17. Findings show that some followers hold passive beliefs, viewing their roles in the classic sense of following—that is, passive, deferential, and obedient to authority. These individuals have a power distance orientation. Others hold proactive beliefs, viewing their role as expressing opinions, taking initiative, and constructively questioning and challenging leaders. These individuals have constructive follower orientations. Because social construction is dependent on context, however, individuals are not always able to act according to their beliefs.
18. According to social exchange theory, relationships develop through exchanges, or actions contingent upon rewarding reactions. When exchanges are one-sided or not satisfactory, relationships will not develop effectively.
The norm of reciprocity helps us understand that when one party does something for another an obligation is generated, and that party is now indebted to the other until the obligation is repaid. Therefore, effective relationship development means meeting obligations in accordance with expected norms of reciprocity.
19. Scholars are paying more attention to collective leadership to increase understanding that leadership is about more than one person's behaviors. It is a social phenomenon constructed in interaction. Therefore, collective leadership helps us to consider not only individuals' traits and characteristics but, also, the shared activities and collective processes that more accurately describe how leadership works in practice.
Applications Essay
20. Your roommate is externalizing blame and probably assuming that he is a leader because he has the title of student government president. But to be a leader, you need to have willing followership. So, a key step is to help your friend think about how others see him, and why they don't see him as a leader. If not, what can he do to better tap into others' implicit theories and get them to grant his leadership claims? He can also consider the kinds of followers they are and how he can better meet their identities as followers. Finally, what are aspects of the context that he can tap into to help him meet the needs of the situation and generate collective processes that help advance more positive outcomes for the organization?
Self-Test Answers 14
Multiple Choice
1. d 2. c 3. b 4. c 5. a 6. b 7. d 8. c 9. b 10. a 11. d 12. a 13. c 14. b 15. a
Short Response
16. The early trait approaches fell out of favor because researchers failed to find any traits that were significantly associated with leadership. A primary reason was the failure to consider mediating variables. Researchers looked instead for significant correlations between traits and leadership outcomes, which were not found.
17. The problems with contingency approaches is that they can't tell us much beyond common sense because so many variables are involved in leadership that it is practically impossible to construct models that accurately reflect leadership practice.
18. Complexity approaches are being developed to bring our understanding of leadership more in line with today's complex environments. Predominant views are grounded in bureaucratic organizing principles that are more than a hundred years old. Not only are these bureaucratic views less relevant; they may actually be doing harm by stifling adaptive dynamics needed for productive emergence in complex environments.
19. Challenges come primarily from the hierarchical nature of the leader role. Personality characteristics (such as narcissism and achievement orientation) and social biases (prejudices and norms) can also complicate ethical behavior in leadership. Perhaps the greatest challenge, however, comes from the tension between self-interest and collective good.
Applications Essay
20. Charisma is a powerful force that can be a dangerous one. Because charismatic leadership arouses strong emotions among followers, it can produce radical behaviors even if a leader did not intend it. Psychological needs of followers can cause them to want and need hero figures that make them feel secure and special. If Jonathan does not live up to the raised expectations of his followers, therefore, they may feel let down. This might affect his personal power as well as create morale and motivation problems for those working with and for him.
Jonathan should be careful not to get caught up in the allure and self-inflating effects others' admiration can have on him. He should make sure to analyze his own intentions to avoid becoming a personalized charismatic. Perhaps most important, he should work to reduce power distance and not allow others to put him on a pedestal. He should redirect others' energies onto the collective rather than onto himself, and he should empower others to think critically, openly question him, push back on him with concerns, and share credit for innovations and successes.
Self-Test Answers 15
Multiple Choice
1. c 2. a 3. b 4. a 5. d 6. d 7. a 8. a 9. b 10. c 11. b 12. a 13. d 14. d 15. a
Short Response
16. Cox's theory is designed for organizations that are located in the United States. His ideas may not be easily expanded to multinational corporations headquartered in other cultures. Cox believes that it is important for culturally divergent groups within an organization to communicate and educate one another. This helps subgroups become more tolerant and interactive with other portions of the organization. Second, the organization needs to make sure that one type of cultural group is not segregated into one type of position. When cultural subgroups are spread throughout the organization, the levels of interaction increase as the stereotyping decreases. The company also needs to help restructure many of its informal lines of communication. By encouraging the integration of the informal communication, subgroups become more involved with one another. The organization must also ensure that no one group is associated with the company's outside image. A company that is perceived to be uniform in its culture attracts individuals who are from a similar culture. Finally, Cox states that interpersonal conflict that is based on group identity needs to be controlled.
17. Groups first need to define who is in the group and who is not. Criteria for both formal and informal groups need to be established to provide a framework for membership. Second, the group needs to set standards of behavior. These standards should consist of a series of informal rules that describe proper behavior and activities for the members. Finally, group members need to identify the friends and adversaries of the group. The identification process helps the group build alliances throughout the organization when they attempt to get projects and ideas completed.
18. If you have not had full-time employment, think seriously about this question because it is designed to help you appreciate the importance of organizational rules and roles. Formal rules should be covered to show that they help dictate procedures individuals use. Informal interaction should be discussed as well. Such questions as, “How are subgroups treated?” “Do different instructors have different rules?” and “Are Seniors treated differently from Sophomores in this system?” could all be potential subtopics.
19. The first element is the need for a widely shared philosophy. Although this first element seems vague, an effective company philosophy is anything but abstract. An organization member needs to be exposed to what the firm stands for. The firm's mission needs to be articulated often and throughout the organization. Organizations should put people ahead of rules and general policy mandates. When staffers feel included and important in a system they feel more loyal and accepting of the culture. Every company has heroes or individuals who have succeeded beyond expectations. Companies with strong company cultures allow the stories of these individuals to become well known throughout the organization. Through these stories, workers need to make sure that they understand the rituals and ceremonies that are important to the company's identity. Maintaining and enhancing these rituals helps many organizations keep a strong corporate culture. Informal rules and expectations must be evident so that workers understand what is expected of them and the organization. Finally, employees need to realize that their work is important; their work and knowledge should be networked throughout the company. The better the communication system in the company, the better the company's culture.
Applications Essay
20. An overemphasis on exploration is likely to yield a great number of new ideas, programs, and initiatives, but comparatively little effective commercialization. In contrast, an overemphasis on exploitation often results in small incremental changes to existing products in existing markets and does not yield the changes often dictated by environmental and technological change. Thus, most OB researchers stress the need for some type of balance. There are a variety of ways to do this. The most ambitious is to develop an ambidextrous organization that stresses both. Often, however, senior managers ask some parts to stress exploration and others exploitation. Here they recognize the tension and are prepared to reconcile opposing views.
Self-Test Answers 16
Multiple Choice
1. b 2. b 3. e 4. a 5. a 6. d 7. d 8. b 9. b 10. c 11. b 12. c 13. b 14. b 15. a
Short Response
16. Output goals are designed to help an organization define its overall mission and to help define the kind of business it is in. Output goals can often help define the types of products and the relationships that the company has with its consumers. Output goals often help demonstrate how a company fits into society. The second kind of organizational goal is the systems goal. A systems goal helps the company realize what behaviors it needs to maintain for its survival. The systems goal provides the means for the ends. It is important to recognize the importance of systems goals for day-to-day operations.
17. Control is the set of mechanisms used to keep action and/or outputs within predetermined limits. Two types of controls are often found in organizations. Output controls focus on desired targets to allow managers discretion in using different methods for reaching these targets. Process controls attempt to specify the manner in which tasks are accomplished. Policies, procedures, and rules as well as formalization and standardization can be seen as types of process controls. Total Quality Management can be seen as a systemic way of managing processes within the firm and thus be viewed as a control mechanism.
18. There are a number of ways to answer this question. Actually, a very large firm could use a simple structure but its chances of reaching its goals and surviving would be small. As the firm grows so does the complexity inside and individuals become overwhelmed if the firm does not evolve into a bureaucracy. Recall that a bureaucracy involved labor that is divided so that each worker was specialized. Every worker would have well-defined responsibilities and authorities. To complement this specialization, the organization should be arranged hierarchically. Authority should be arranged from the bottom up. A worker should be promoted only on the basis of merit and technical competence. Most importantly, employees are to work under rules and guidelines that were impersonal and applied to all staffers equally.
19. James Thompson believed that technology could be divided into three categories—intensive, mediating, or long linked. An intensive technology occurs when uncertainty exists as to how to produce the desired outcomes. Teams of specialists are brought together to pool knowledge and resources to solve the problem. An interdependence among specialists develops because all parties need one another to fulfill the project successfully. This technology often occurs in the research and development portion of organizations. A mediating technology allows various parties to become interdependent. For example, the ATM network that most banks utilize allows customers to bank at other institutions and still be tied to their home bank, automatically. Without this technology, the banking industry would not be so well linked. The technology helps determine the nature of the banks' relationships with one another. Finally, Thompson believed that long-linked technologies had a unique effect on organizations as well. Long-linked technology is more commonly known as industrial technology. This type of knowledge allows organizations to produce goods in mass quantities. The assembly line designed by Henry Ford is one of the early examples of long-linked technology. Thompson uses these distinctions to highlight the various impacts that technology has on organizations. His approach differs greatly from Joan Woodward's approach, which focuses more on the mode of production. Woodward divides technology into three areas: small-batch manufacturing, mass production, and continuous process custom goods. Crafts persons are often characterized as small producers who must alter production to fit the needs of each client. Mass production technology deals with production of uniform goods for a mass market. The production design is altered to maximize speed while limiting product styles. The last type of technology deals with continuous-process technology. Oil refineries and chemical plants are classic examples of this type of technology. These industries are intensely automated and produce the same products without variation.
Applications Essay
20. The notion that the Postal Service is a mechanistic bureaucracy is important because it suggests that there are already many controls built into the system by the division of labor. You should recognize several primary side effects that are exhibited when control mechanisms are placed on an individual in an organization such as the Postal Service. There is often a difficulty in balancing organizational controls. As one control is emphasized, others may be neglected. Controls often force managers to emphasize the “quick fix” instead of long-term planning. Often, controls lead to solutions that are not customized to specific problems (i.e., “across the board cuts”). Planning and documentation can become burdensome and limit the amount of action that actually occurs. Managers often become more concerned with internal paperwork than with problem solving or customers. And there are far too many supervisors and managers. Controls that are vaguely designed are often ineffective and unrealistic. As a result, the manager may interpret the control as he or she wants. The “do the best you can” goal that is commonly given to managers in the Postal Service is an example of this concept. Controls that are inserted drastically and harshly often cause panic among managers and administrators. A swift change in the territories of postal delivery clerks is an example. Finally, many goals and controls are inserted without the appropriate resources. This practice can make the attainment of goals difficult, if not impossible.