Index
A
Abnormal event stresses, 239–242
AC voltage, 213
system frequency tests, 214, 215
Acetylene, 226
Aging infrastructure, 1, 2, 7, 14. See also Infrastructure, power delivery
calibrating forecasts, 725, 728
condition modeling; see Condition modeling
data, forecasting using, 706, 733–734, 736
deterioration, 295
equipment lifetime, 248
failure of; see Failure rates
feeder issues; see under Feeder systems
geographic information on, 662, 709–710
impact of, 295
incrementing age distribution, 719–721
interconnection complexity, 324
load-related lifetime, 244–246
middle-aged equipment versus very old, 262
pattern analysis of, 707
results-driven management (RDM) of; see Results-driven
management (RDM)
retirement, 708
substations, augmenting, 354
technical obsolescence, 242–243
American Society of Testing and
Materials (ASTM), 207, 217, 223, 224
Analytical simulation, 516–517, 525
Analytical/Monte Carlo hybrid simulation, 525, 526, 530
Asset base model, 648–649, 655, 708–709
Asset management, 564. See also
Budgeting; Portfolios, potential;
Portfolios, utility
aging infrastructure, view
toward, 564
case example of utility with
philosophy of, 574–575, 578–579
case example, wood poles; see
Case example, wood poles
CBM/RCM, using, 557
classification of assets, 370, 372
data mining; see Data mining defining, 195
dependencies and constraints, 199
efficient, 197
goals of, 200
inefficient, 197
integrated, 404
lists of transformers, 704
model building for; see Model
building overview, 557
ownership, equipment, 539
Pareto analysis of; see Pareto
analysis prioritization, 199
reliability centered maintenance,
as part of, 415
uncertainty, dealing with, 567
Automation programming testing, 212
Automation sequences, 211
B
Basic contingency planning concept base case, 299–300
contingency cases, 300
design standards, 300
overview, 299
Benefit/cost ratio analysis, 182
case example, aging infrastructure, 182–183, 185– 186
intra-project analysis, 200
marginal ratio, case example, 190–191
ranking projects according to, 186–187
Break-in period, 253
Breaker testing, 212
Budget-Constrained Planning (BCP), 201, 698
Budgeting. See also Costs of power allocation, 442
approval, 445
constraints and pressures, 349, 354, 411
defining, 33
inspection and servicing, 413
O&M, 412
C
CAIDI. See Customer Average Interruption Duration Index
(CAIDI)
Capability testing, 206
Capacitors
inspection of, 393
overview, 72
Case example, wood poles
age data, 610
age distribution curve, 632, 634
aiSAIDI contribution
aiSAIDI escalation, 682
Asset Base Model, 648–649, 655
asset management, 658–659, 661, 686
benefit/cost of replacement, 662, 664–665
condition tracking function, 603
consistency, 652
cost-justified replacement plan, 667, 669–670
customers, affected service to, 662
deterioration, average, 655–656
deviation, standard, 656
GIS data, 654
historical data model, 612–613, 625
input-output approach, 613, 616, 619
inventory, 609
long-term trends, 619, 622–623
Pareto curves, 645
planning model, 603
Poke database, 603
pole management database, 612
portfolio management, optimized, 679–680
records and regulatory reports, 607
reliability analysis, 641, 642– 644, 647–648, 661
reliability/replacement of aged
replacement cost projections, 638, 640, 658
retirement rate, 627, 628, 631
RMS minimization, 626–627, 631
Smart-Switching program, 646, 685, 686
sustainable point model, 625– 626, 627, 634, 677, 679
underground distribution, 622– 623, 635–636, 642
Chevrolet Volt, 106
Circuit breakers
ancillary and associated
inspection, 381
overview, 381
temperature rise test, 381
time and travel tests, 382
ComEd (Chicago), 303
Community, relationship to utilities, 292
Computer and Business Equipment
Manufacturer’s Association
Condition
consequences of, 363
data, 402
durability, 363
go/no-go measurement, 397
scoring; see Condition scoring
tracking; see Condition tracking
Condition modeling, 736
Condition scoring
consequences of, 35
criticality, 35
data, 39
DGA, 35
measurements, 363
overview, 34
single-valued, 34
Condition tracking
prioritization, usefulness to, 412
state tracking, versus, 405–406
Condition-based maintenance, 549– 550, 551–552
aging infrastructure, view toward, 564
inspection of, 390
bundling of, 266
Connectivity sensitivity, 318
Conservation Voltage Reduction (CVR), 695–696
Constant failure rates, 535
Contingency design criteria, 146
Contingency margins, 147
Contingency support neighborhoods, 309, 311, 313, 314
Contingency-based engineering, 147
Costs of power
amount of energy, 55
budget constraints and pressures, 349, 354
budgeting, 33
capital expenditures; see Capital
harmonics, 125
incremental, 163
interruptions; see under Interruptions
levelized value; see Levelized value
loading levels, related to, 21
maintenance costs, 21
management of, 405
operating costs, 48
present worth analysis; see Present worth analysis
quality, power, 132
quantity based, 152
reliability, relationship between; see under Reliability, power
sunk costs; see Sunk costs
Cross-arms, 390
Culture, organizational
mixed approaches, 570
standards-based, 568–569, 586– 594
Customer Average Interruption
Duration Index (CAIDI)
computing, 148
defining, 143
increases in related to loading, 21
Customer service guidelines 701-202
Customers/consumers, electric
end-use modeling of consumer
availability needs; see End use 125
modeling of consumer
availability needs
metrics, 533
reliability, concerns of, 113
service quality, concerns of, 113
D
D1534 test, 223
D1816 test, 207
D1916 test, 223
D2285 test, 225
D877 test, 223
D971 test, 224
Data mining
classification, 373
clustering, 373
regression, 373
rule development, 373
DC voltage, 213
hi-pot tests, 218
De-rating, 249
engineering guidelines and relationship between, 33
Demand intervals, 109
Demand side management, 497, 499
Destructive testing, 207, 209, 386
Diagnostics, defining, 205
Dielectric absorption ratio (DAR), 216
Dielectric absorption tests, 215
Dielectric strength tests, 210
Direct reliability engineering, 147
Dissolved gas analysis (DGA), 35, 205–206
Distribution paradigm, 342, 344
Distribution performance management (DPM) system, 704
Distribution Planner, 137, 139
Distribution systems, 19, 55, 89
effectiveness, improvement in, 30, 31
engineering of, 30
equipment guidelines, 68
non-optimum use of, 26–27, 28– 30
planning, importance of, 337– 338
Smart Grid, on; see under Smart Grid
Y-connected, 388
Doble testing, 212
E
Electromagnetic field stress, 236– 237
Electromechanical action tests, 212
End-use modeling of consumer availability needs, 126–127
End-uses for power, 104–105, 105
appliances, 106
industrial use, 106
Energy, U.S. Department of, 303
Equipment assessments overview, 361, 362
Equipment ownership. See
Ownership, philosophies of
Erosion of capability, 222
F
Failure rates
causes of, 262
constant, 525
escalation, impact of, 254, 256
high levels, 254
lifetime, 252
maintenance-related, 421
net failure rates, 262
peaks, 258
predicting time to; see Time-to- failure
uncertainty, 250
wear-out period, 253
Failure-count diagrams, 259
Failures
causes of, 369
defining, 150
partial; see Failures, partial
Failures, partial, 25
planning-related concerns, 317
Faults
location of in cables, 387
Federal Energy Regulatory
Feeder systems, 20
construction of, 65
contingency switching, 344, 347
distribution voltage, 63–64, 65, 94, 95
duct crowding, 282
economic reach, 288
erosion of, 271
gateways, 280
interconnectiveness, 99
interruptions caused by, 291–292
large-trunk, 91
load transfers, 353
loads, 289
loop; see Loop feeder systems
multi-branch, 91
outdated, 280
pathways, length of, 351
planning, 294, 342, 344, 348– 349, 351, 493–494, 496
radial; see Radial feeder systems reach of, 288
reliability, 278, 291–292, 294
routers, 280
strength of, 338–339, 351–352, 354–355
switch zones, 344
switches, reinforcement of, 293
thermal reach, 288
transformer contingencies, 286- 287, 288
trunks, reinforcement of, 293, 348
Y-intercepts, 287
Forensic testing, 209
Function, knowledge of the, 413– 414
Fuzzy evaluations, 36
G
Gas-insulated switchgear (GIS), 293
H
Harmonics, 113-117
assessing, 132
surge costs of, 125
Heat pumps, 105
Hi-potential tests, 218–219, 386, 395–396 526
Hydrogen, 226
I
IEEE Standard C57-1004-1991, 376
Indentor tests, 386
Indirect reliability engineering, 146
Induced potential tests, 219
Infrared scanning, 390
Infrastructure, power delivery. See
also Aging infrastructure
capital expenditure on, 4
defining, 11
deterioration, 5, 7–8, 16, 43, 295
inspection of; see Inspections, power delivery systems
long-term versus short-term planning; see Planning, utility
managing, 38
repair and restoration, 16–17, 253
Inspections, power delivery systems.
See also Equipment assessments budgeting for, 413
circuit breakers, of, 38
condition evaluations, 206, 211
defining, 204
failure rates, reduction in, 421
field evaluations, 207
importance of, 710
materials evaluation, 211
need for due to aging
infrastructure, 17
olfactory, 204
physical examinations, 710
routine, 206
tracking, 407
transformers; see under Transformers
Insulating oil, tests and diagnosis of acidity tests, 224
applications, 227
color testing, 222
dielectric breakdown testing, 223
freeze testing, 222
methodology, testing, 227, 228
overview, 221
samples, 222
water content testing, 222–223
Insulation
cellulose, 226
deterioration, 216
strength of, 374
stress on, 216
temperature, relationship between, 396
Insulators, 190
Integrated circuits, 11
Integrated resource planning (IRP), 181
Intel, 11
Interconnection complexity, power
Interfacial tension tests (IFT), 225
Interruptions
costs of, 115, 118, 120, 122, 124, 132
defining, 132
duration, 137
extent, 137
feeder-related; see under Feeder systems
length of, 291
momentary, 117
prevalence, 132
priority notifications, 120
regional variations, 122
residential, 120
K
Key performance indicators (KPI)
prioritizations, 450
targets, 196
L
Lateral lines, 77
Layouts, power delivery systems
case example, obsolete system, 266, 268, 269–270
evolution of, 56
standardized, 30
lifetime levelized analysis, 179
Lifetime levelized analysis, 179
Lifetime, useful, 253
Lightning strikes, 241
Line equipment, 390. See also specific equipment parts
Load curtailment indices, 143–144
Load curve management
demand periods, 109
load factor; see Load factor
loading requirements for utilities, U.S., 300
Load curves, 106
load duration; see Load duration curves
Load duration curves, 110
annual, 111
limitations, 112
usage, 111
Load factor
annual, 79
economic loading levels, 288
forecasting, 26
specifications, utility, 6
transfers, 353
Loop transmission, 266
Loss of life, 244
Losses, electrical, 79
loads, related to, 81
no-load losses; see No-load
losses operating costs, as, 80
M
MAIFI. See Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index (MAIFI)
Maintenance, infrastructure, 253
effectiveness of, 369
policies, 604
recordkeeping regarding, 406, 407
Management, power industry, 31–32
Marginal benefit-cost evaluation, 190–191, 200, 339
Methane, 226
Microprocessors evolution of, 12
introduction of, 11
Mixed integer-type optimization, 200
Model building. See also Data mining
condition modeling; see Condition modeling
contingencies, modeling, 518– 520
knowledge application, 372
network modeling; see Network modeling
Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index (MAIFI), 143
Monitoring/control equipment, 68
N
N-1
criterion, 312
applications, 299, 301, 303, 315
configuration complexity, 25–26
contingency support
neighborhoods; see Contingency support neighborhoods
development of, 24, 299–300, 303
multiple failures, applying concept to, 299
neighborhoods, 312
reliability analysis, combining with, 330
utilization ratios, relationship between, 306, 316
N-2 criterion, 24
N-3 criterion
development of, 304
N-X criterion, 22
Network modeling, 515
No-load losses, 81
Nominal voltage, 106
Non-destructive testing, 209
North American Electric Reliability
Corporation (NERC), 8
O
Operating costs, power systems
budgeting, 33
challenges, 48
costs related to amount of energy, 55
loading levels, related to, 21
maintenance costs, 21
Optimization
defining, 410
partial measures and, 437
trade-offs, 451
Organizational culture. See Culture, organizational
Overheard lines
inspecting, 388
primary (MV) lines, 387
secondary (LV) lines, 387
Ownership, philosophies of
asset management; see Asset management
buy, burn, bash, 539, 540–542, 564–566, 583–585, 594–596
condition-based maintenance; see Condition-based maintenance
reliability-centered maintenance; see Reliability centered
maintenance (RCM)
P
Pareto analysis, 196, 197–198, 200, 645
Partial discharge tests, 213, 220– 221, 386, 396
weather-related; see Weather normalization
Performance-based rates, 527, 528, 530, 698–699, 701
Performance-based industrial
Phase switches, 212
Planning, utility. See also Spatial
load forecasting
alternatives, evaluating, 467–468
alternatives, identifying, 465– 466, 467
alternatives, selecting, 469
basic contingency planning
concept; see Basic contingency planning
benefit/cost ratio analysis; see
Benefit/cost ratio analysis
budget-constrained; see Budget-constrained planning (BCP)
combinatorial decision-making, 337
community and political
pressures, 269
durability, 200
feeder systems, 294
goals, identifying, 463
improving, 294
ineffective, 272
long-term, 458, 459, 466, 472– 473, 475–476, 486
lowest cost among alternatives, analysis of, 181
power delivery planners, 459, 465
present worth analysis; see
Present worth analysis process of, 462
reliability-based, 294
scope of problem, identifying, 463
short-term, 458, 459, 466, 470– 472
strategic planning; see Strategic
planning substations; see under
Substations time versus money decisions, 165, 167
uncertainty, handling, 476–477, 478–479
weather-related; see Weather normalization
zero base planning, 194
Poke databases, 603
Polarization recovery tests, 217, 218
Poles
branding/birthmarks, 607
creosote poles; see Creosote
preservatives, 624
sonograms of, 389
wood, 599–600, case example, for wood poles
Portfolios, potential, 196, 197
Portfolios, utility, 196
Potassium hydroxide, 224
Power delivery infrastructure. See
Infrastructure, power delivery
Power delivery systems. See also
Transmission and distribution
(T&D) systems elements of, 12
inspection, service, and
maintenance guidelines, 6
layouts; see Layouts, power
delivery systems
operating costs; see Operating
costs, power systems
operating guidelines, 6
ownership of, 10
Power factor
poor, reasons for, 73
Power quality. See Quality, power
Predictive models, 405
Present worth analysis
application, 169
present worth factors, 170
risk, 173
Prioritization, 551
application, 454
budget, relationship between, 366–367, 411, 415
capital spending, 410
constraints, 453
KPIs, 450
O&M, 410
reliability centered maintenance
(RCM), based on; see under
Reliability centered
maintenance (RCM)
Protective equipment, 68
cost of, 72
overview, 71
Q
Quality, power
assessing with cost as factor, 113–114
consumer value, as part of, 129, 132
cost concerns, versus, 132
interruptions, 115
Quantity of power. See also Load
factor
consumer value, as part of, 129, 130–131
forecasting, 484; see also Spatial load forecasting
pricing based on, 152
R
Radial distribution systems, 83
Radial feeder systems, 85-86, 138
Radial switching, 89
Radio interference tests, 390
Real Time Digital Simulation Test, 213
Regulators
communicating with, 292
inspections, 393
Regulatory reports, 607
Relational normalization, 374
Reliability centered maintenance (RCM)
advantages of, 453
aging infrastructure, view
toward, 564
approval target, 436
availability, 550
before and after conditions, 550
case example of organization
with RCM philosophy, 579–
categories of, 441
condition classes, 550
condition-based maintenance,
decision making based on, 436
effectiveness, 417
implementation, 441
improvements, expected, 429
inter-project alternatives
evaluation, 434
intra-project alternatives
evaluation, 430, 432–433, 434, 436
maintenance and maintenance
multi-district/multi-department
application, 442
optimization, 437
ownership theories and, 539, 548
prioritization based on, 418, 421, 422, 425, 427–428, 429
Reliability load flow, 512, 513
Reliability. See also Reliability
centered maintenance (RCM)
analysis by location, 113
analysis, traditional, 117–118
consumer, distance to, related to, 59
contingency margins, 100
cost, relationship between, 341, 559
customer value of, 113
end-use modeling of consumer
availability needs; see End-use
modeling of consumer
availability needs engineering based on; see
Reliability-based engineering goals of, 52, 137
historical assessment, 150
indices, overview, 141–142, 144, 146; see also specific indices
optimal versus maximum, 509
planning, 697
power system equipment, 153
price, relationship between, 155
probabilities, application of,
50–151
rural standards, 149
systems approach; see Systems
approach to reliability
analysis targets for DG planning, 148
tiered reliability areas, 149
urban standards, 149
Reliability-based engineering, 328– 330
Dependability of, 510
design improvements, 513
guidelines, 697
load flow, se reliability load flow
overview, 510
system improvements achieved
through, 336
traditional engineering, versus, 348–349
Replacement policies, 262
Research and development, 404
Resistance tests dielectric absorption ratio (DAR), 216
dielectric absorption tests, 215
insulation resistance, 215
overview, 215
Results-driven management, 201
Results-driven management (RDM)
zero-basing expenses, 694
S
Safety, 561
Sags, voltage. See Voltage sags
SAIDI. See System Average
Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI)
SAIFI. See System Average
Interruption Frequency Index
(SAIFI)
Sectionalizers, 393
Service interruptions
causes of, 59
Sludge, 224
Smart Grid
complexity, 97
cost of, 97
defining, 96
performance, 97
Smart systems, 230
Solid-state relays
development of, 12
Space heating, 105
Spatial Load Analysis, 112
Spatial load forecasting, 323–324, 483–486
State, defining, 364
Substations, 272
augmenting, 354
budgetary constraints, 354
compact designs, 292
contingency support neighborhoods, 313, 314
definition, 62
distribution voltage, 94
elements of, 63
feeder systems, relationship between, 64, 76, 278
get-away costs, 75
inter-substation transfers, 287
interconnectiveness, 99
intra-substation transfers, 287
land costs, 75
layout of, 93
location, 62
multiple transformers, 284
site costs, 75
support, contingency, 279–280,
288–289
transformer costs, 75
transformers, number of, 63
transmission costs, 75
Subtransmission
defining, 497
interconnectiveness, 99
Sunk costs, 163
Surges
customers costs of, 125
Sustainable point
base, 711
case example, wood poles; see under Case example, wood poles
management concept, as, 711
non-optimal view of, 712
Switches, 71
replacement, 391
Switchgears
gas-insulated; see Gas-insulated
switchgear (GIS)
inspections, 383
overview, 383
Synchronization tests, 211, 212
System Average Interruption
Duration Index (SAIDI), 141- 146
degradation, 7
duration measurements, 147
feeder systems, role of, 144, 272, 283
increases in related to loading, 21
measurements, 142
minimizing, 452
optimum plan, 451
reducing, 702
weather-related, 321
System Average Interruption
Frequency Index (SAIFI), 141- 146
cost-effectiveness, relationship between, 508
feeder systems, role of, 144, 283
reducing, 702
Systems approach to reliability
analysis application of, 353
importance of, 503
limits to, 500
trades between, 341
Systems, power delivery. See Power
delivery systems
T
Tap changers, 317
Technical obsolescence, 242–243
Temperature rise test, 381
Testing (devices and equipment).
See also specific tests and test types
acceptance testing; see Acceptance testing
capability testing; see Capability testing
defining, 205
destructive; see Destructive testing
forensic; see Forensic testing
non-destructive; see Non destructive testing
resistance tests; see Resistance tests
Tie lines, 277
Time of use cost of interruptions 122
Time-in-service, 250
Time-to-failure, 249–250, 251, 395, 406
Total combustible gas test (TCGA), 397
Transformer load management
(TLM) programs, 393–394, 703– 704
Transformers
aging, 374
deterioration, 374
insulation strength, 374
load-related losses, 71
multi-, 284
overview, 374
padmount, 67
substations, number of per, 63
thermal load testing, 379
thermal response signature, 379
transformer load management
(TLM) program for; see
Transformer load
management (TLM)
programs
vault-type, 67
Transistors, 11
Transmission and distribution
(T&D) systems. See also Power
delivery systems cost guidelines, 95
equipment sizes, 99
ground covered by, 98
interconnectivity of levels, 99
levels, 98; see also Specific levels losses, 99
maintenance and operating costs, 78
network, 61
planning process, 480, 482–483;
see also Planning, utility;
Strategic planning secondary/service levels, 67
spatial load forecasting for; see
Spatial load forecasting
stability, 61
substation levels; see Substations
system guidelines, 95
total costs, 83
transformers; see Transformers
transmission versus distribution, 67, 68
upgrade versus build costs, 78, 99
Transmission/distribution lines, 68, 69
U
Underground cables, 384–386, 387
Uninterruptible power supplies, 130
Utilization ratios, 268, 272, 274
high levels of, 278, 307–309, 312, 314, 325
interconnection, relationship
V
Volt, Chevrolet, 106
Volt-Amp-Reactive (VARs), 72–73
Voltage capability tests, 210
Voltage drops, 347
Voltage levels, 56
Voltage regulation equipment, 72. See also Capacitors Voltage sags, 115, 117, 125, 132
interruptions, versus, 140
Voltage stress, 695
Voltage, stable, 53
W
Wear, 237
Wear-out period, 253
Weather normalization
data, reliability of, 320, 321
summer peaks and, 319
winter peaks and, 319
Wheatstone Bridge circuits, 226
Wood poles. See under Poles
Y
Y-connected distribution systems, 388
Z
Zero-crossing, 212