Index

Note: Page numbers followed by “b,” “f,” and “t” refer to boxes, figures, and tables, respectively.

A

Absorption
ammonia, 172, 249
NO2, 301
sulfuric acid, 370
Absorption tower, 371f
mechanism of nitric acid production in, 328f
Air, 61
atmospheric pollution, 103
composition, 61, 62t
humid air, 103–114
as raw material, 300
uses, 61–62
Air distillation, 86–97
Linde’s double column, 90–97, 90f
argon separation and purification, 97, 98f
Linde’s simple column, 87–88, 88f, 88f
simple column with recycle, 89
Claude’s column, 89
recompression, 89
Air liquefaction
cascade cycle for, 86, 87f
Claude cycle for, 82–84, 83f, 83f
Air separation, 62–102
chemical separation, 63
cryogenic methods, See Cryogenic methods
noncryogenic air separation, See Noncryogenic air separation
history, 62–63
physical separation, 65–67
Air separation technologies, comparison of, 102t
Alchemists, 3–4
Alcohol recovery, 437–439
Algae, 411–413
Algae growth reactors, 413f
Alkali Acts, 167–169
Alkali catalysts, 425–426
Alternative technologies, 16
evaluation, 16–17
Ammonia, 74–75, 231–263
catalyzed production of, 236f
converter, 312f
Kellogg process for production of, 250f
oxidation, 8, 301, 305, 311–318
production, 219, 223, 232
properties, 231–232
stage III reaction, 232–263
converter design, 238–248
production processes, 249–263
reaction kinetics, 235–238
thermodynamics, 232–235
storage, 232
usage, 232
vapor pressure of, 231t
Ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX), 408–409, 409f, 409t
Ammonia oxidation, 311–318
explosion limit for ammonia–oxygen mixtures, 314
factors that affect catalyst losses, 313–314
reaction and equilibrium, 311–312
reaction kinetics and mechanism, 314–318
Ammonia soda process, 169–175
Ammonia-based processes, 301–339
process analysis, 311–339
absorption of NOx, 326–339
ammonia oxidation, 311–318
nitrogen peroxide equilibrium, 323–325
NO oxidation to NO2, 318–322
process description, 301–311
Anaerobic digestion (AD), 430
Aniline, 7
Antoine correlation, 43, 104
and phase change, 453
Argon separation and purification, 97, 98f
Aromatic polyamide membranes, 151
ASPEN, 39
ASPEN plus, 49
Atmospheric pollution, 103
Autoreforming, 223
Axial flow converters, 240

B

Badische Anilin und Soda Fabric (BASF), 6
Barley beer, 3
Bartholin, Thomas, 129–130
Batch reactors, 48
Bead polymerization, 414
Beer column, 31–32, 432, 432–435
Beer multieffect column, 433f
Berthollet, C., 231
Beyher, Samuel, 129–130
Biodiesel, 411, 421, 437–439
production, using solid catalysts, 437f
Bioethanol, 415–420
production process, 14f
Biogas, 430–432
process analysis, 431–432
gas composition, 432
kinetics, 431–432
process description, 431
Biomass, 13, 199, 405–448
algae, 411–413
grain, 405
intermediate processing, 415–432
biogas, See Biogas
sugars, See Sugars
syngas, 424–425
lignocellulosic, 405–411
biooil production, 407
paper production, 411
sugar production, 407–411
syngas production, 407
natural rubber, 413–415
historical perspective, 413–414
mechanism and kinetics, 414–415
polymerization processes, 414
product purification, 432–439
alcohol recovery, 437–439
ethanol dehydration, 432–436
hydrocarbon and alcohol mixture separation, 436–437
penicillin purification, 439
seeds, 411
thermodynamic cycles, 439–441
Brayton cycle, 441, 442f
Rankine cycle, 439–441, 440f
types and preprocessing, 405–415
Biooil production, 407
Bipolar electrolyzers, 159
Black, Joseph, 62–63
Block flow diagrams, 33, 33f
Block flow process diagram, 33, 34f
Boiling point, 86, 86–87, 131–132, 179
Boudouard equilibrium, 203, 204f
Boudouard reaction, 203, 276
Boyle, Robert, 129–130
Brayton cycle, 439, 441, 442f
Bromine, 165
Bubbling-type fluidized bed, 214–215
Bulk polymerization, 414
Businesses in the chemical industry, 12f
Butanol, 422

C

Calcium carbide, 7
Calcium carbonate, lime production from, 181–187
Calcium oxide, 437–438
Caoutchouc, See Rubber
Carbon dioxide
hydrogenation, 264, 281
utilization, 158
Casale process, 255
Cascade cycle, 86
for air liquefaction, 87f
energy consumption in, 87t
Cavendish, Henry, 62–63
Cellulosic membranes, 151
Chamber acid, 355–356
CHEMCAD, 39, 49
Chemical equilibrium, 42–43
Chemical industry, businesses in, 12f
Chemical industry, evolution of, 1–10, 10–12, 11f
alchemists, 3–4
first settlements, 1–3
industrial revolution, 5–8
coal gas industry, 7–8
siderurgy, 5
sodium carbonate industry—soda processes, 7
sulfuric acid industry, 6
textile industry, 6
industrial society, 8–10
coal gasification, 9
nitric acid industry, 8
petrochemical industry, 9–10
polymers, 9
lower middle ages, 4
middle ages, 4–5
prehistory, 1
renewable and nonconventional-based development, 10
Chemical plants, 13
equipment involved in accidents in, 51f
Chemical processes, 13
flow diagrams, 33–39
symbols, 35–39
types, 33–35
mass and energy balances review, 39–49
equation-based approach, 40–49
modular simulation, 49
optimization and process control, 49
principles of process design, 17–32
evolutionary methods, 17
hierarchy decomposition, 17
superstructure optimization, 17
problems, 55–58
process engineering, 13–17
design criteria, 16–17
mass and energy balances, 16
problem definition, 16
process synthesis, 16
process sustainability, 54–55
integrated production–protection strategy, 54–55
mitigation strategy, 55
safe process design, 50–54
detailed design review, 53–54
preliminary hazard review, 52
process hazard review, 53
Chemical water purification, 157, 157f
Chile saltpeter, 8
Circulating-type fluidized bed, 214–215
Claude, George, 82
Claude reactor, 252f
Claude’s column, 89
Claude’s cycle, 82–84
for air liquefaction, 83f, 83f
analysis, 82–84
description, 82
Claude’s process, 249, 252f
Claus process, 7, 229, 230f, 249, 347–348
CO2 absorber, 227f
CO2 capture, 187f
absorption isotherm and capacity of molecular sieves for, 228f
using alkali solutions, 224–225, 224f
Coal, 199
Coal distillation, 213–214
Coal gas industry, 7–8
Coal gasification, 9
Coal-based syngas production, 207f
Column sequencing, heuristics for, 20–24
Commercial electrolyzers, 159–160
Concentrated solar power, 10, 158, 188, 439–440
Contact method, for sulfuric acid production, 366–397, 366f
history, 366
process analysis, 373–397
mixing tanks: heat of solution, 394–397
oxidation kinetics, 384–390
oxidation thermodynamics, 373–383
SO3 absorption, 391–393
process description, 366–373
construction materials, 373
emissions, 373
heat integration, 373
oleum production, 372
secondary products, 372
selenium removal, 372
SO2, catalytic oxidation of, 369–371, 369f
SO3 hydration, 371–372
sulfur combustion, 367–369
Control instruments and data legend, 39, 39f
Converter
ammonia, 304t, 312f, 313f
methanol, 249
Countercurrent tube-cooled converter (TVA converter), 243f
Critical temperature, 63
Crude oil, 200–201
composition of, 201f
Cryogenic methods, 63–99
air distillation, 86–97
Linde’s double column, 90–97, 90f
Linde’s simple column, 87–88, 88f, 88f
simple column with recycle, 89
Cascade cycle, 86
Claude’s cycle, 82–84
analysis, 82–84
description, 82
Linde–Hampson air liquefaction cycle, 67–82, 75f
analysis, 68–82
description, 67–68
Phillips’s cycle, 85–86
storage, 98–99
Crystallization, 144, 144
Current yield, 159

D

Darvy, Abraham, 5
Dephlogisticated air, 62–63
Desalination of seawater, 129–157
technologies based on salts separation, 156–157
chemical depuration, 157
electrodialysis, 157
ion exchange, 157
technologies based on water separation, 131–156
evaporation, 131–147
extraction using solvents, 149
freezing, 147–148
hydrate production, 148
reverse osmosis, 149–156
Deuterium, 201–203
Dew point, 44, 437–438
Dewar, James, 63
Dilute acid pretreatment, 410f, 410t
Dimethyl furfural (DMF), 421–422
Dimethylether (DME), 282–283
Direct cooled multibed reactors, 270f
Distillation, 20
air distillation, 86–97
coal, 213–214
McCabe, 45
multieffect, 32f
sequence, 20, 20, 22f, 22f, 23f, 24f
of water–methanol mixture, 274–276
Douglas hierarchy, 18–32
level 1: batch versus continuous process, 18
level 2: input–output structure, 18
level 3: recycle, 19
level 4: separation structure, 19–24
synthesis of distillation sequences, 20–24
level 5: heat recovery and integration, 24
heat exchanger networks, 25–32
DOW index, 52
Dow’s method, 165
Downdraft-type fixed bed, 214–215
Dry reforming and autoreforming, 223
Dual
nitric acid dual process, 301
Dual-pressure process, 305, 307f
Dühring diagram, 131–132, 134
for NaCl solutions, 133f
for NaOH, 135f

E

Economic evaluation, 15
Economic sustainability, 54
Electrodialysis, 157
Electrolysis of water, 158–163
commercial electrolyzers, 159–160
fuel cells, 161–163
Electrolyzers, 159
bipolar, 159
schemes for, 160f
tank-type, 159
Emission control and building issues, 339–340
Emulsion polymerization, 414
Energy balances, 41–42
Energy consumption
in cascade cycle, 87t
in Linde’s cycle, 67t
Energy efficiency, 159
Energy ratio, 158–159
Engineering materials, evolution of, 2f
Enthalpy diagrams, 41
Enthalpy of reaction, 41–42
Equilibrium
ammonia, 311–312
biodiesel, 428
NO, 318, 321t, 322f
NO2, 318, 322f, 327, 327, 336
SO2, 375t, 379t
Equilibrium constant, computing, 323
Equilibrium relationships, 42–47
chemical equilibrium, 42–43
phase equilibrium, 43–47
gas–liquid equilibrium, 43–47
liquid–liquid equilibrium, 47
Ethanethiol, 218–219
Ethanol
dehydration, 432–436
production, 425, 432
Evaporation, 131–147
evaporator design, 132
multieffect evaporators, 139–147
multieffect, 131, 132, 139, 139, 139–144, 146t, 147t
single effect, 132, 133f
single-effect evaporators, 132–138, 133f
three-effect evaporation system, 132f
Evolution of chemical industry, 1–10
alchemists, 3–4
first settlements, 1–3
industrial revolution, 5–8
coal gas industry, 7–8
siderurgy, 5
sodium carbonate industry, 7
sulfuric acid industry, 6
textile industry, 6
industrial society, 8–10
coal gasification, 9
nitric acid industry, 8
petrochemical industry, 9–10
polymers, 9
lower middle ages, 4
middle ages, 4–5
prehistory, 1
renewable and nonconventional-based development, 10
Explosives, 7
Extraction using solvents, 149
Extractive distillation, 307–309, 308f, 308f

F

Fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE), 421, 421t, 425
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), 425, 426
Fauser process, 254, 254f, 255f
Feed systems, types of, 139, 139, 139, 139, 139, 140f
Fenske Equation, 45
FERCO/Battelle gasifier system, 216f
Fermentation, 408–409, 415, 415–416
ethanol production via, 432
syngas fermentation, 425
Fick’s Law, 100–101
Filter press cells, 159
Fischer–Tropsch (FT) technology, for fuel and hydrocarbon production, 263–283, 425
methanol production, 263–276
methanol to gasoline (MTG), 282–283
syngas reaction to Fischer–Tropsch liquids, 276–281
mechanisms, 276–278, 277f
product distribution, 279–280
product upgrading and refinery processes, 280–281
reactor types, 278–279, 278f
syngas production and synthesis, 279
use of CO2 to chemicals, 281–282
Fixed air, 62–63
Fixed beds, 214–215
Flash, 19, 43–44, 411, 437
Fleming, Alexander, 422
Flow diagrams, 33–39
symbols, 35–39
types, 33–35
Flowsheeting, 35–39
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), 280–281, 281f
Fluidized beds, 214–215
Fossil reserves, 200f
Freezing desalination, 147–148, 149f
Fresnel, Augustin, 169
Fuel cells, 161–163, 161f
Furans, 421–422

G

Gas absorption membranes, 228–229
Gas generator, 203–213, 255–256, 256f
partial oxidation (gas generator), 203–204
steam processing (water gas), 204–213
Gas law, 47
Gas-heated reformers, advantages of, 220t
Gasification, 214–217, 255
coal, 9
Gasifier designs, 214f
Gas–liquid equilibrium, 43–47
Gas–Solid–Solid Trickle Flow Reactor (GSSTFR), 273
Gay-Lussac, 6, 299, 354
Gilliland’s equation, 46
Glover acid, 355
Glucose fermentation, 421
Glycerol, 438–439
Gossage, William, 7
Grain, 405
Graphic process diagram, 34, 34f

H

H3PO4, 437–438
Haber converter, 251f
Haber–Bosch process, 8–9, 231, 249, 251f
Haldor–Topsoe process, for ammonia production, 256–263, 256f
Hausen’s diagram, 64, 64f
Linde’s cycle in, 69f
Hauser diagram hydrogen, 201–203, 202f
Hazard, 50
HAZOP analysis, 53, 53–54, 53f, 54
HCl production from NaCl (Mannheim process), 181
Heat exchanger networks (HENs), 24, 25–32
multieffect columns, 31–32
structure, 28–31
utilities minimization, 25–28
Heat of solution, 394–397, 454
Heavy Gasoline Treater (HGT), 283
Henry’s Law, 100, 101
Hevea brasiliensis, 414
High-pressure process, 306f
High-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT), 276, 278–279, 280–281
High-temperature sweet shifting, 205
Hollow fiber membrane, 152, 153f
Homogeneous acid catalysts, 426
Humid air, 103–114
Humidification, 43
Humidity
relative, 106, 110–111, 357
specific, 108, 112
Hybrid cycles, 165
Hydrate production, 148
Hydrocarbon and alcohol mixture separation, 436–437
Hydrocarbon and synthesis fuel production FT, 223–230
removal of carbon oxides, 230
removal of CO (ammonia synthesis), 230
removal of H2S, 229–230
sour gas removal, 224–229
alkali solutions, 224–227
cryogenic separation, 229
membrane separation, 228–229
mineral storage and capture, 229
physical absorption, 227
pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 227–228
water removal (ammonia synthesis), 230
Hydrocarbons, steam reforming of, 217–222
Hydrochloric acid, 7
Hydrocracking, 280–281
Hydrogen and H2:CO mixture production, 201–223
coal distillation, 213–214
dry reforming and autoreforming, 223
gas generator—water gas method, 203–213
gasification, 214–217
steam reforming of hydrocarbons, 217–222
thermal decomposition/partial oxidation, 217
Hydrogen economy, 159–160

I

Ibutene, 421
purification, 436–437
India rubber, See Rubber
Indirect cooled converter, 271f
Industrial revolution, 5–8
coal gas industry, 7–8
siderurgy, 5
sodium carbonate industry, 7
sulfuric acid industry, 6
textile industry, 6
Industrial society, 8–10
coal gasification, 9
nitric acid industry, 8
petrochemical industry, 9–10
polymers, 9
Intensive method for sulfuric acid production, 356–365, 357f
Intermediate processing, 415–432
biogas, 430–432
process analysis, 431–432
process description, 431
sugars, 415–424
biodiesel, 421
bioethanol, 415–420
butanol, 422
furans, 421–422
ibutene, 421
penicillin, 422–424
syngas, 424–425
Ion exchange, 157
Isentropic efficiency, 82
Isoprene, 414

J

Jaenecke diagram, 171, 172f
Jobs and Economic Development Impact (JEDI), 54
Joule-Thompson (Kelvin) effect, 63

K

Kellogg four-bed vertical quench converter, 240f
Kellogg process, for ammonia production, 249, 250f
Kellogg-type converter, 270
Kinetics
ammonia, 232, 235–238
ammonia oxidation, 314–318
biodiesel, 421, 429t
biogas, 431–432
ethanol, 416, 416b
methanol, 265–269, 425
penicillin, 422–423
SO2, 384
Kinetics and reactor design, 48
Kinetics of the reaction, 323
Klentz, Trevor, 51–52
Kubiersky method, 165
Kuhlmann, Frédéric, 8

L

Le Chatelier’s principle, 312
Lead chambers process, 6, 347, 354–356
Leblanc process, 6, 6, 7, 7
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), 54
Lignin, 405–406
Lignocellulosic biomass, 405–411
biooil production, 407
paper production, 411
structure, 406f
sugar production, 407–411
chemical pretreatment, 409–410
enzymatic pretreatment, 411
physicochemical processes, 408–409
syngas production, 407
Lime production from calcium carbonate, 181–187
Linde’s block diagram, 68f
Linde’s cycle
energy consumption in, 67t
in Hausen’s diagram, 69f
in Mollier’s diagram, 69f
Linde’s design, 97
Linde’s double column, 90–97, 90f
argon separation and purification, 97, 98f
Linde’s equation, 66
Linde’s simple column, 87–88, 88f, 88f
Linde–Hampson air liquefaction cycle, 67–82, 75f
analysis, 68–82
description, 67–68
Linde–Hampson cycle with precooling, 74–75, 75f
Liquefaction process, 65–66, 98f
Liquid–liquid equilibrium, 47
Liquid–liquid separation, 19
Lower middle ages, 4
Low-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT), 276, 278–279, 281
Low-temperature sweet shifting, 205
LPMEOH, 272

M

Mass and energy balances, 16, 39–49
equation-based approach, 40–49
design equations for the units, 49
energy balances, 41–42
equilibrium relationships, 42–47
kinetics and reactor design, 48
mass, heat, and momentum transfer, 47–48
modular simulation, 49
McCabe’s ΔL law, 144–145
Medium-pressure process, 303f
Melted NaCl, electrochemical decomposition of, 179
Membrane
characteristics, 151
configuration, 151–152
types, 151
Membrane gas separation, 101f
Membrane WGSR, 206f
Membranes, in reverse osmosis, 151
configurations, 151–152
parallel operation, 154f
series operation, 154f
types, 151
Methanation (ammonia synthesis), 230
Methane hydrate, 10
Methane production, 281–282
Methane steam reforming, 217
Methanogenesis, 431, 431–432
Methanol production, 263–276, 273–274, 282
flowsheet, 273, 273f
kinetics of, 265–269
Methanol to gasoline (MTG), 282–283
Middle ages, 4–5
Mineral coal, 5
Mixed alcohol synthesis, 425
Modular simulation, 49, 49f
Mollier’s diagram, 65, 65f, 85
Linde’s cycle in, 69f
Monod kinetics, 422–423
Multibed reactor, 241, 370
with direct cooling, 239, 239f
with indirect cooling, 241, 241f
with intercooling, 270
Multieffect
distillation columns, 24, 31–32, 32f, 33f
evaporators, 131, 139–147
Murdoch, William, 7

N

NaCl solutions, Dühring diagram for, 133f
NaOH solutions
Dühring diagram for, 135f
enthalpy of, 136f
National Energy Renewable Lab (NREL), 409
Natural gas (NG), 199–200
Natural rubber, See Rubber
Neon, 97
Nitric acid, 299
emission control and building issues, 339–340
history, 299
major products from, 300f
production processes, 299, 300–339
air as raw material, 300
ammonia-based processes, See Ammonia-based processes
from nitrates, 300
uses, 299
Nitric acid industry, 8
Nitrogen
production, 223
properties of, 61
Noble gases, 62
Noncryogenic air separation, 99–102
chemical-based processes, 102
membranes, 100–102
pressure swing adsorption cycles, 99–100
Nordhausen acid, 372
Noxious air, 62–63

O

Oil extraction, process for
from seeds, 412f
Oleum, 348
production, 372
Optimization and process control, 49
Organic membranes, 151
Osmosis, 149
Osmotic pressure, 149, 149–150
Ostwald process, 301
Oxygen, properties of, 62

P

Paper production, 411
Pará rubber tree, 414
Penicillin, 422, 422–424
purification, 439
Petrochemical industry, 9–10
Phase equilibrium, 43–47
gas–liquid equilibrium, 43–47
liquid–liquid equilibrium, 47
Phillips, Peregrine, 6, 366
Phillips’s cycle, 85–86
thermodynamic representation of, 85f
Photovoltaic (PV) solar energy, 10
Pinch analysis, 28–29
Piping and Instrumentation Diagram, 34–35, 37f
Platinum meshes, 314f
Plug flow/packed bed reactors, 48
Cis-1,4-Polyisoprene, 414
Polymerization, 414
Polymers, 9
Polytropic compression, 42
Potassium nitrate, 299
Power production, 441–442
Pressure
drop, 48, 240
partial, 42–43, 233–235
vapor, 43, 103, 187f, 231t
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 99, 100f, 219, 227–228
PSA cycles, 99–100
Priestley, Joseph, 62–63, 414
Principles of process design, 17–32
evolutionary methods, 17
Douglas hierarchy, 18–32
hierarchy decomposition, 17
superstructure optimization, 17
Process diagrams, 33–34
Process engineer, 13–15, 15
Process flow diagrams, 34–35, 36f
Process flowsheeting, 35–39, 38f
Process scale-up, 15
Process sustainability, 54–55
integrated production–protection strategy, 54–55
mitigation strategy, 55
Propane steam reforming, 221b
PV solar energy, See Photovoltaic (PV) solar energy
Pyrite complexes, 347–348
Pyrite roasting, 351–354, 353t
Pyrrhotite, 351–352

Q

Quench converters, 239

R

Radial flow converters, 240
Radical polymerization, 414–415
Rankine cycle, 439, 439–441, 440–441, 440f
Raoult’s Law, 46
Reaction kinetics, 318–319
Recompression, 89
Rectisol process (Lurgi), 227
Reformer, 250f
autoreforming, 223
dry, 223
gas-heated, 220t
Refrigerant, 148
Relative moisture, 103
Renewable and nonconventional-based development, 10
Renugas gasifier, 215, 215f
Reverse osmosis, 149–156, 150f
membrane characteristics, 151
membrane configurations, 151–152
operation of membrane modules, 153–156
separation factors, 150–151
types of membranes by materials, 151
Rice beer, 3
Rising steam converter, 270–271, 272f
Risk, defined, 50
Roebuck, John, 6, 347
Rubber, 413–415
historical perspective, 413–414
mechanism and kinetics, 414–415
polymerization processes, 414
Rutherford, Daniel, 62–63

S

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 415–416
Safe process design, 50–54
detailed design review, 53–54
preliminary hazard review, 52
process hazard review, 53
Salinity of water, 128–129
Salt separation, 130–131
Salts precipitated by solar evaporation, 165t
Saltwater, 129–130
Sankey diagram, 34, 35f
Seawater
desalination, 129–157
chemical depuration, 157
electrodialysis, 157
evaporation, 131–147
extraction using solvents, 149
freezing, 147–148
hydrate production, 148
ion exchange, 157
reverse osmosis, 149–156
technologies based on separation of salts, 156–157
technologies based on water separation, 131–156
electrolysis, 158–163
commercial electrolyzers, 159–160
fuel cells, 161–163
as raw material, 128–187
salinity, 128–129
sodium chloride industry, 165–187
electrochemical decomposition of melted NaCl, 179
electrolytic decomposition of NaCl in solution, 179–181
production and use of sodium carbonate, 166–179
production of HCl from NaCl (Mannheim process), 181
production of lime from calcium carbonate, 181–187
thermochemical cycles for water splitting, 163–165
family of sulfur, 164
family of the halides, 163–164
family of the oxides, 164
hybrid cycles, 165
Second-generation bioethanol production
reactions and conversions in, 416t
Seeds, 411
process for oil extraction from, 412f
Selenium removal, 372
Selexol process, 227
Shale gas, 10, 199–200
Siderurgy, 5
Simple column with recycle, 89
Claude’s column, 89, 89f
recompression, 89, 89f
Single-effect evaporators, 132–138, 133f
Slurry reactor, 272, 272f
Social sustainability, 54
Soda ash, See Sodium carbonate
Soda processes, 7
Sodium carbonate, 166–179
production via Leblanc’s process, 166–169
production via Solvay’s process, 169–175, 182b
chemical history of the process, 169–170
flowsheet, 170–175
usage of, 175–179
Sodium carbonate industry, 7
Sodium chloride industry, 165–187
electrochemical decomposition of melted NaCl, 179
electrolytic decomposition of NaCl in solution, 179–181
production of HCl from NaCl (Mannheim process), 181
production of lime from calcium carbonate, 181–187
sodium carbonate, 166–179
production via Leblanc’s process, 166–169
production via Solvay’s process, 169–175
usage of, 175–179
Solar evaporation, 129–130, 165
salts precipitated by, 165t
Solar evaporators, 147, 148f
Solvay, Ernest, 170
Solvay process, 7, 169–175
Solvay Tower, 170, 171
Sour gases, 13, 224–229
Specific enthalpy, 41
Specific moisture, 43, 103
Specific molar moisture, 103
Spiral membranes, 152, 153f
Stainless steel, 340
Starch molecule, 406f
Steam properties, 454–456
compressed liquid, 455
overheated steam (10 bar–150 bar), 455–456
overheated steam (up to 10 bar), 455
saturated liquid, 455
saturated vapor, 455
Steam reforming, 217–218
Steam reforming of hydrocarbons, 217–222
Sugar production, 407–411
chemical pretreatment, 409–410
enzymatic pretreatment, 411
physicochemical processes, 408–409
Sugars, 415–424
biodiesel, 421
bioethanol, 415–420
butanol, 422
dehydration, 421–422
fermentation, 415–416
furans, 421–422
ibutene, 421
penicillin, 422–424
Sulfides, 347–348
Sulfur
burner, 368f, 369
combustion, 367–369
oxidation, 347, 366–367, 369–371
recovery, See Claus process
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), catalytic oxidation of, 355, 369–371, 369f
multibed reactor, 370
tubular packed beds, 370
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), 348
hydration, 371–372
Sulfuric acid, 4, 307–309, 347
applications, 348
chemical properties, 349–351
global production, 348–349
health and safety issues, 348
history, 347
pyrite roasting, 351–354
raw materials, 347–348
Sulfuric acid industry, 6
Sulfuric acid production, 6, 347, 354–397
distribution of, across regions, 349f
double-stage absorption process for, 368f
intensive method, 356–365, 357f
lead chamber process, 347, 354–356
single-stage absorption process for, 367f
Supersaturation, 144, 144–145
Sustainability, 54–55
Sustainable development, 54
Syngas, 9, 9, 199, 424–425
coal, 199
crude oil, 200–201
natural gas (NG), 199–200
problems, 283–295
Syngas production, 201–223, 407
hydrogen and H2:CO mixture production, 201–223
coal distillation, 213–214
dry reforming and autoreforming, 223
gasification, 214–217
steam reforming of hydrocarbons, 217–222
thermal decomposition/partial oxidation, 217
water gas method, 203–213
nitrogen production, 223
Syngas purification, 223–230
ammonia production, 223
hydrocarbon and synthesis fuel production FT, 223–230
removal of carbon oxides, 230
removal of CO (ammonia synthesis), 230
removal of H2S, 229–230
sour gas removal, 224–229
water removal (ammonia synthesis), 230
Syngas synthesis, 231–283
ammonia, 231–263
stage III reaction, 232–263
Fischer–Tropsch technology for fuel and hydrocarbon production, 263–283
methanol production, 263–276
methanol to gasoline (MTG), 282–283
syngas reaction to Fischer–Tropsch liquids, 276–281
use of CO2 to chemicals, 281–282
Synthetic rubber, 9, 414, 414

T

Tank-type electrolyzers, 159
Temperature Swing Adsorption (TSA), 99
Texaco syngas generation process (TSGP), 255, 255f
Textile industry, 6
Thermal decomposition/partial oxidation, 217
Thermochemical biomass processing, 407f
Thermochemical cycles for water splitting, 163–165
Thermochemistry, 453
Thermodynamic cycles, 439–441
Brayton cycle, 441, 442f
Rankine cycle, 439–441, 440f
Thermodynamic representation of Phillips’s cycle, 85f
Titanium, 340
Transesterification reaction, 425–426
Tritium, 201–203
Tropsch, Hans, 263
Tube converters, 242–248, 243f
Tubular membranes, 152, 152f
Tubular packed beds, 369f, 370
Tubular reactors, 270, 413f
for methanol synthesis, 270, 271f

U

Uhde’s ammonia process, 249–253, 253f, 253f
Uhde’s medium-pressure process flowsheet, 303
Unipolar electrodes, See Tank-type electrolyzers
Unit energy consumption, 158

V

Vacuum-insulated tanks and dewars, 99f
Van Helmont, Johann, 347
Vapor recompression, 147
Volatile fatty acids (VFA), 431

W

Washing soda, See Sodium carbonate
Water, 125
consumption per capita, 126f
distribution on earth, 126t
problems, 188–197
scarcity, 126f
seawater
desalination, 129–157
electrolysis, 158–163
as raw material, 128–187
salinity, 128–129
sodium chloride industry, 165–187
thermochemical cycles for water splitting, 163–165
water–energy nexus, 188
withdrawal and consumption across the world, 125, 125, 125–127, 127f
Water expansion, 148
Water gas shift (WGS), 204–205, 206b
Water gas shift reaction (WGSR), 204, 217–218
membrane WGSR, 206f
sour, 205–206
sweet operation of, 205
Water phase diagram, 147, 148f
Water separation, technologies based on, 131–156
evaporation, 131–147
multieffect evaporators, 139–147
single-effect evaporators, 132–138
extraction using solvents, 149
freezing, 147–148
hydrate production, 148
reverse osmosis, 149–156
Water splitting, thermochemical cycles for, 163–165
Water thermodynamics, 130–131
Water–energy nexus, 188
Water–sulfuric acid system, 349–351
Watt, James, 6
Wilkinson, John, 5
Willson, Thomas L., 7
Wind energy, 10, 158, 159–160
Wöhler, Friedrich, 7

X

Xylose, 421

Z

Ziegler–Natta catalysts, 415
Zymomonas mobilis, 415–416
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3.15.144.56