DESIGN COMMUNICATION TACTICS

Since designers are called to both inform and persuade their audiences, many parallels can be drawn between design communication tactics and contemporary marketing strategies. The best marketing campaigns are thought to contain three ingredients: Meaning, Explanation, and Story.⁴ These ingredients help ensure that a message is relevant, understood, and captivating.

Consider these ingredients in the design communication tactics below:

THE EVOLUTION OF STORY

Over time, stories became more complex, in turn, serving more purposes. As our societies advanced (and our survival became more secure), our stories no longer had to be grounded in facts. Our ancestors grew to love the intense drama and suspense made possible only by fictionalized stories. These stories provided entertainment and a release from the trials and tribulations of war, plague, and famine. However, even amidst the comforts of modern life, we continue to enjoy such escapes.

In fact, researchers Tooby and Cosmides asserted that our brains have a built-in reward system that attracts us to fictional experiences, even when we wouldn’t enjoy an obvious payoff.⁸ This may explain why, on a rainy Saturday afternoon, we may prefer to binge-watch our favorite show instead of reworking our portfolio.

However, evidence suggests that stories are more than merely tools of distraction, and research has provided some valuable insights surrounding how stories help us form social connections, organize information, and even learn right from wrong.

Figure 1.0
Stories help us form social connections, organize information, & learn right from wrong

GOSSIP

While our mothers may have warned us about the dangers of gossip, they also taught us to look after each other. In a sign of fellowship, our primate cousins spend much of their day performing acts of social grooming. In other words, to show affection, they clean their friends and family. While we humans have similar goals for expressing solidity and social order, gossip frees up our hands to perform other tasks.¹²

Gossip has a bad reputation, but not all of it is bad. Researchers have suggested that gossip serves several purposes, allowing us to seek and share information,¹³ express opinions, obtain guidance, define social norms, and satisfy our desire to belong.¹⁴ In these intimate exchanges, there can be benefits for both parties. Those listening may gain newfound insight, while the teller might benefit from added stature or reciprocity. Essentially, since you shared something with me, I’ll return the favor.¹⁵

Gossip has worked so well for our species that it is considered universal across cultures.¹⁶ Whether our gossip sessions stem from factual or fictional accounts (or somewhere in between), gossip is a form of storytelling, complete with characters, conflict, and intrigue.

Psychologist Jonathan Haidt said that without gossip…
“there would be chaos and ignorance.”¹⁷

FICTIONAL STORIES

Gossiping about a co-worker is not the only way story shapes our social interactions. Since fictional stories simulate social experiences, evidence suggests that they also shape how we interact with others. When researchers compared both the emotional states and personality traits of individuals who read either a story-based or factual account about the same information, readers of the story version experienced significantly greater changes in their personality traits.¹⁸ Since stories often contain vivid descriptions of a character’s mental state, they are thought to improve our social awareness too.¹⁹ Researchers found that fiction readers have greater sense of empathy,^{20 21} and were more attuned to the intentions and opinions of others.²²

LINKING EVENTS WITH A STORY

Our mothers may have also warned us about the consequences of making assumptions, and for a good reason, since our assumptions can often be wrong. To avoid accepting incorrect ideas, our brains seek to categorize these ideas into causes and corresponding effects; this is known as causal reasoning.²³ Stories can aid causal reasoning by helping the audience link a series of events rather than wrestle with disconnected anecdotes.²⁴ Author Lisa Cron explained cause and effect with the mantra of If, Then, and Therefore.²⁵

As an example… if we work on our portfolio, then we might land the job; therefore, we should work on our portfolio.

LIFE LESSONS WITH IF, THEN, AND THEREFORE

Figure 1.1
Stories shape how we interact with others

LINKING A STORY’S EVENTS TO OUR OWN EXPERIENCE

Another way our brains attempt to understand new information is to align it with our own experiences,²⁶ and stories have an uncanny way to help us do so. In a good story, when the main character is scared, we’re scared, when they’re triumphant, we too bask in their glory. Essentially, we share their emotions.

Our emotions are due to a chain of reactions set off in our brain. Dopamine causes our brains to anticipate the new experiences offered in the story.²⁷ Brain scans have shown that when the characters embark on these new experiences, various regions of the brain track different aspects of the story. Some of these areas actually mirror those that would be used by the characters themselves during the story’s unfolding events; this is why we feel embarrassed when a character has an awkward conversation. We construct visual and motor representations that essentially mimic the story’s events as if we are going through them ourselves.²⁸ This causes our brains to produce the stress hormone cortisol when our hero is struggling,²⁹ and oxytocin when a stranger offers kindness.³⁰ If the main character is pursuing a goal, even more regions of our brain are engaged.³¹ Not only can we experience our hero’s struggles and triumphs, but we can use them as a guide should we encounter a similar situation.

ORGANIZATION OPPORTUNITY

To leverage the brain’s naturally occurring chain of chemical reactions, designers can craft a story that helps their audience link events. For example, instead of discussing the merits of a floor plan, they can share a story about the experience one may have as they enter and move throughout the space. The designer weaves a story about the character’s journey, highlighting design features along the way. The audience can then link the spaces in their minds and use causal reasoning to envision how others might use those spaces. In their minds, if the space is designed this way, then building occupants might be able to experience it in this manner; therefore, this is the best design. They might even align the story with a positive event in their own lives – the effect can be quite potent.

Figure 1.2
Stories can help us link events together & to our own experiences

INFLUENCING OUR BELIEFS

Evidence suggests that stories can also influence how we behave.³⁵ If we identify with a character, we may be more likely to embody their positive attributes. And these changes are thought to be relatively stable, meaning they do not change right after the story is over. In fact, researchers suggest that beliefs changed as a result of a story may even grow stronger over time.³⁶ This insight led researchers to suggest that a story’s ability to psychologically transport an audience is a “powerful means of altering our view of the world.”³⁷

Listening to the stories of others is not the only way they frame our values. By generating our own stories, we can describe our experiences, and in turn, better understand ourselves. Mental health professionals have long used this tactic when treating their patients. In fact, psychiatrist and author Bradley Lewis wrote that “psychiatrists listen to stories more than anything else they do.”³⁸ So, when we gossip about a coworker, not only are we attempting to bond with colleagues, but the act itself can be cathartic.

Within design, stories can be used as a call to action or to justify ideals. For example, if a designer wants to defend a price increase following a voluntary pay raise for their apparel workers, they might tell a story about a young employee who can more easily provide for her family given the higher living wage. The key is to be authentic. If the same designer was to tell this story, but only to conceal their own self-serving goals, their message will likely fall flat. It will be delivered with less passion, conviction, and zeal. Worse yet, in time, they will likely be called out on their deception – especially given the access to information and the hyper-connectedness made possible with social media. Sachs defined these truth detectives as agents of authenticity,³⁹ stating that once an agent of authenticity uncovers a fabrication, they share it with others, thus destroying the teller’s credibility. Stories only work if they are genuine.

VALUES

Values are central to a good story, but they can be easily misplaced and misconstrued in the commercials, advertisements, slogans, and political messages that surround us. These too are persuasive stories, and Sachs surmises they follow one of two aims: making the audience feel either inadequate or empowered.⁴¹

EMPOWERMENT MARKETING

The audience is the hero in empowerment marketing. Instead of being merely a consumer of a product or idea, Sachs suggested that the audience rises to the role of the citizen. The moral is that you can accomplish something great, and a product or idea can help you to do so. In empowerment stories, the audience rallies behind inclusive mantras such as better together, or we can. Sachs suggests this tactic is more successful. His premise is that an inspired citizen makes for a loyal evangelist for a product or idea.⁴² He also observed that empowerment stories tend to be shared with others far more frequently. As case in point, would you be more apt to like a video that has left you feeling inspired, or one that calls out your flaws? To understand empowerment marketing, Sachs referred to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (see page 26).

Figure 1.4
Inadequacy marketing reminds consumers of their shortcomings while consumers are the hero in empowerment marketing

TYPES OF VALUES

Maslow was a psychologist who, unlike Freud, primarily studied people who were generally content with their lives. Instead of coveting items or goods, he found them seeking higher level needs, such as finding purpose or making a difference.⁴³ Sach’s lists nine such values which can be used to frame persuasive empowerment stories.⁴⁴ Your story won’t call upon all nine values doing so would only dilute your message. The key is to focus on one value that know will resonate with your audience, which will be considered in Chapter 3.

VALUE TO MORAL

The story’s moral is how its values comes to life. For instance, if the audience values justice, a designer might focus on how new production techniques provide better working conditions for their employees. The moral is that the audience should purchase from this brand because they care for their employees.

If the audience values richness, the designer might vividly narrate the experience one would have when using the product for the first time. The moral for the audience is that they too could enjoy this experience.

Figure 1.5
Nine values from which a persuasive story might emerge

PLOT

The story’s moral is made apparent through its plot. Plot is not only the story’s events, but what happens to the main character as they encounter conflict.⁴⁵ Think of conflict as anything that provides the audience with a sense of urgency. This feeling of urgency can stem from the internal struggles of the main character as they battle against their demons or wrestle with their own misguided beliefs. Or the conflict can be due to an external force of evil. This foe can come in the form of another person, being, or tragic event.

Conflict is an important storytelling tool because when something is amiss, the audience will want to see how it can be resolved.

In design storytelling, the sources of conflict will hinge on your goals and the values of your audience. These sources of conflict can range from a client battling for the hearts and minds of their customers, despite having few resources, to a designer grappling with the problems faced by homeless children. Typically, the best sources of conflict are interesting, relevant, and meaningful to your audience.

CONFLICT REVEAL

Your audience’s time and attention will likely be short in supply, so your story will need to pique their interest quickly. Author Lisa Cron suggested that storytellers tease their audiences with a “breadcrumb trail,” meaning that the storyteller should provide just enough information to keep the audience moving forward through the story.⁴⁶ This is similar to progressive disclosure, which can be thought of as giving the audience just enough information, just when they need it. The goal is to get the audience anticipating the consequences of each event. That is to say, something is amiss, or out of balance, and if it does not get resolved, something bad might happen. This type of breadcrumb trail activates our dopamine neurons, keeping us immersed in the folds of the story.

STORY STRUCTURE

Once the conflict has been defined, consider how it will unfold within three different segments. These sections can seamlessly flow from one to the next, so their boundaries may remain unknown to the audience. But for the storyteller, each segment represents different working goals. We’ll call these segments, Launch, Load, and Landing.

Think of the Launch as when the story’s events are set into motion, either gradually or at breakneck speed. In either case, the conflict should be made apparent right from the beginning. Then, along the breadcrumb trail, the stakes are made known, and the characters are defined. The Launch is critical to not only gaining the attention of the audience but framing the story’s elements. Once the audience understands these introductory elements, they will be used to judge every subsequent event and how these events impact the main character.

Load can be characterized as adding any elements that are necessary to move the story forward. This can range from providing context, defining the contours of the conflict, or even offering potential solutions.

At Landing, the story comes to a halt. The conflict is resolved – with either positive or negative consequences for the main character. Since the moral plays a critical role in promoting the desired action, it should either be implicitly or explicitly visible at the story’s conclusion.

OTHER PLOT TYPES

One interesting thing about stories is how many different messaging strategies there are. Most stories aren’t epic novels, and not all will follow a linear trajectory. Some may employ foreshadowing and flashbacks to provide context and intrigue. Yet, designers rarely have the time or the need to leverage these devices in design presentations.

At the same time, stories can be very short and without a proper beginning, middle, and end. Stories can be told even from a single profound image. Many of us can identify with the heartbreak behind a photo of the World Trade Center site taken on September 12, 2001, or the joy of an athlete winning an Olympic medal. See Chapters 6–8 for tactics in visual storytelling. No matter what strategy is employed, the key is to consider the values of the story first, and then decide how to tell it.

CHARACTER

Many of us already know that the main character of the story is the protagonist and the antagonist is typically the bad guy – which of course does not have to be a guy, or even a person at all. However, the most enduring stories, and the ones that move an audience to action, often feature characters with whom they can identify.⁴⁷ In fact, studies have suggested that if we can identify with a character, we are more likely to give to their cause.⁴⁸ This is why nonprofits often highlight the plight of a specific individual, even when their group may be helping millions of worthy people. Audiences are often more swayed by a personal story than the magnitude of the cause. This is because they can develop a relationship with a character and, by extension, the character’s goals and ideals. If a likable character’s life revolves around a certain value system, we too may come to value it. We can share their hope as they reach for their highest potential, and feel their pain as they face challenges along the way.

Our capacity to judge characters makes it easier for us identify with them. Social intelligence theories suggest that we do this by interpreting the identity, status, and intentions of others.⁴⁹ This means that character development can be complicated. In fact, there are entire volumes dedicated to the craft. However, it is unlikely that a design story will need to provide extensive character elaboration and Sachs provides a brief, but useful, character development framework he calls “Freaks, Cheats, and Familiars.”⁵⁰ Under his premise, we define Freaks as new and interesting, while Familiars remind us of ourselves or someone we know. Finally, depending on their circumstances, we either hope for or root against Cheats who have opted to challenge the status quo.

While characters make a story interesting, in persuasive design storytelling, there will be added focus on how to orchestrate your story for maximum emphasis on either your point of view, the merits of your design, or your potential for a position or project. We will explore these topics in Chapter 3.