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Tools for Understanding Space
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Tools for Understanding Space
by John Beaver
The Big Picture
Preface
Acknowledgments (1/2)
Acknowledgments (2/2)
Space
Tools for Understanding Space
Powers of Ten
Measuring Distances in Space (1/2)
Measuring Distances in Space (2/2)
Using Time to Measure Distance
Angular Diameter and Parallax
Triangulation, Parallax, and the Astronomical Unit
Stellar Parallax
Scaling and Scale Models
Scaling Ratios
Surface Area, Volume, Mass, and Density
References
Looking Outward
Earth, Moon, and Sun
The Shape of the Earth
The Rotation of Earth
The Spherical Earth: An Example
The Size of Earth
The Solar System
A Scale Model of the Solar System
The Data
The Shapes of Planets and Orbits
Densities of the Planets
Stars (1/2)
Stars (2/2)
A Scale Model for the Stars
Densities of Stars
The Angular Sizes of Stars
Star Clusters
HII Regions and Giant Molecular Clouds
Galaxies
The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy
Dwarf Galaxies
Giant Ellipticals
Clusters of Galaxies
The Local Group
The Virgo Cluster
Superclusters and Voids
Constellations and the View from Earth
From the Milky Way to 3C273
The Deep Field
The End of Space
The Cosmological Horizon
References
Looking Inward
Self Gravitation
The Size of Life
The Microscopic
Molecules, Atoms, and Their Parts
The Planck Length
References
Time
Tools for Understanding Time
Timelines
Logarithmic Timelines
Light-Travel Distance
Look-Back Time
The Cycle of Time and the Arrow of Time
The Doppler Effect
References
The Present
Space, Time, and Spacetime
Time Dilation
Length Contraction
The Addition of Velocities
Minkowski Spacetime
Right Now and Right Here
Simultaneity and the Meaning of Local
Time Variations and Size
Cosmology and the Cosmological Principal
Cosmological Parameters (1/2)
Cosmological Parameters (2/2)
The Hubble Parameter (H_0) and Hubble's Law
The Expansion of the Universe and the Big Bang
The Current Age of the Universe (t_0)
The Baryon Density (_b)
The Dark Matter Density (_c)
The Dark Energy Density (_)
The Cosmic Microwave Background Temperature (T)
The Chemical Composition of the Universe (XYZ)
References
The Past
Measuring the History of the Universe
The Beginning
A Time-Line to Now
The Planck Era
Inflation
The Formation of Protons and Neutrons
The Fusion Era
Time of Decoupling
Time of Re-Ionization: Stars and Galaxies
Formation of the Milky Way, Sun, and Earth
Time of Dark Energy Domination
A Graphical Summary
A Cosmic Calendar
References
The Future
The Future at Large Scales
The Future at Small Scales
References
Evolution
Evolution of the Solar System
Components of the Solar System
Terrestrial Planets
Jovian Planets
Asteroids
Oort Cloud Comets
Periodic Comets
Meteors and Meteorites
Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs)
Satellites
Overall Properties of the Solar System
The Nebular Hypothesis
The Condensation Sequence
The Late Heavy Bombardment
Formation of the Comets and Asteroids
Stellar Evolution
M, L, R, and T
The Relation Between L, T, and R
The Hertzsprung–Russel Diagram
Formation of Stars
The Main Sequence
Mass and the Main Sequence
Main Sequence Lifetime
Evolutionary Track of the Sun
Lower-Main-Sequence Stars
Upper-Main-Sequence Stars
Stellar Explosions
Star Clusters and Isochrones
What Remains
Nucleosynthesis and Evolution of the ISM
The Evolution of Galaxies
Formation and Evolution of the Milky Way
Top-Down Scenario
Bottom-Up Scenario
References
Process
Fields
Newton's Gravity
The Classical Gravitational Field
Gravity and Spheres
Gravity and Orbits
What is Mass?
Einstein's Gravitational Field
Gravitational Lenses
Neutron Stars and Black Holes
Dark Matter and Dark Energy
The Electric and Magnetic Fields
What the Fields Do
What is Charge?
Maxwell's Equations and the Causes of and
References
Waves
The Nature of Waves
Amplitude, Speed, Wavelength, and Frequency
Light: Electromagnetic Waves (1/4)
Light: Electromagnetic Waves (2/4)
Light: Electromagnetic Waves (3/4)
Light: Electromagnetic Waves (4/4)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Light and its Spectrum
Thermal Radiation
The Colors of Stars
Non-Thermal Radiation
The Spectrum of an Emission Nebula
Stellar Spectra
Brightness and the Inverse Square Law
Scattering of Light
Scattering by Interstellar Dust
Views at Different Wavelengths
Gravitational Waves
Spiral Density Waves
Probability Waves: Quantum Physics
References
Equilibrium
Static Equilibrium
Stability and Instability
Hydrostatic Equilibrium
Dynamic Equilibrium (1/2)
Dynamic Equilibrium (2/2)
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Atomic Level Populations
The Absorption Spectra of Stars
Photoionization-Recombination Equilibrium
References
Structure
The Structure of Energy and Matter
The Nature of Energy
Symmetry
Symmetry in Astronomy
Symmetry and Conservation Laws
The Standard Model of Particle Physics
The Particles and their Interactions
Where is Gravity?
Where is Dark Matter? Where is Dark Energy?
References
The Interior Structure of Stars
Main Sequence Stars
The Fusion Core
Post-Main Sequence Stellar Structure
Giants: Hydrogen Shell Fusion
End Stages of Fusion
The Structure of Galaxies
Elliptical and Lenticular Galaxies
Spiral Galaxies
The Hubble Tuning-Fork Diagram
The de Vaucouleurs Classification Scheme
Irregular and Peculiar Galaxies
The Causes of Galactic Structure
References
Large-Scale Structure of the Universe
The -CDM Model of Cosmology
Entropy and Gravity
The Flat Interaction and Large-Scale Structure
References
Units and Scientific Notation
Units and Dimensions
Scientific Notation
References
Author's Biography
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