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Phenomenology of Embodiment 51
According to Husserlian phenomenology, everything starts from
the subject. It is, thus, forever impossible for behaviorism to unravel
the mystery of consciousness and the mind because it excludes the
study of subjective matters.
In my opinion, the subjective approach of studying consciousness
and the mind adopted by phenomenology will gradually shift to an
objective approach. This gradual shift will probably take place when,
for example, phenomenological hypotheses are scientifically proved
as a result of advancements in physiological knowledge about the
brain. It is also possible, on the contrary, that multiple scientific
discoveries may stimulate the creation of a new phenomenological
model for unifying them.
To start a study of consciousness and the mind from a
phenomenological perspective, we must first establish subjective
hypotheses about consciousness and the mind. This would require
a functionalistic approach of some form or another. This is because
it is easier to study consciousness and the mind by assuming that
consciousness and the mind comprise a set of various functions at
least in the initial stage of study.
If we side with the functionalists, we would face a problem in that
various functions are individualized and reduced to their ultimate
details. For example, the cerebral function will eventually be reduced
down to the input and output state of stimuli at every brain cell.
Accordingly, instead of simply relying on functionalism, we need to
prepare a scheme for unifying the various functions.
The next discussion is about the relationships between the brain,
on the one hand, and consciousness and the mind, on the other.
In Chapter 3, “Story of the Human Brain,” I mentioned that human
consciousness is not lost even when the right brain is damaged.
From this fact, brain scientists believe that consciousness is closely
related to the left brain.
When one engages in some action intentionally and attentively,
the frontal lobe of the brain exhibits vigorous activity. If will and
attention area function of consciousness, this would seem to indicate
that consciousness is closely related to the frontal lobe. If the
important function of the mind is the generation of feelings, the
mind may be closely related to the limbic system of the brain.
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52 Human Consciousness and the Mind
Spiritual experiences, religious experiences, and subconscious
activities are said to be related to the right brain. If subconscious
is considered to be consciousness of which the person is not aware,
consciousness would be closely related to the right brain (Sperry,
1974).
We cannot ignore the sensory sensors of humans because stimuli
input from the environment via these sensors affect consciousness
and the mind. It is also obvious that the movements of the muscular
system are associated with consciousness, even though they might
be unconscious movements. For these reasons, the author believes
that consciousness and the mind are closely related to not only the
brain but also the body.
The next question is whether the brain has representation.
As discussed above, representation refers to the images of
external objects that emerge in consciousness based on perception.
There are perceptual representations (the object exists in reality),
memory representations (reproduced from memory) and imaginary
representations (creating a mental picture). Representation is
sensuous and concrete, which makes it “different from concepts and
ideas” (Kohjien). I will explain this briefly. If you see an apple in
front of you, the image of the apple is formed on the retinas of your
eyes. The image stimulates the photoreceptors of the retinas, and
the relevant signals are transmitted to the brain, first reaching an
area called V1. The signals are then distributed to various different
areas in the brain responsible for processing visual information. On
completing the final signal exchange at the frontal lobe in the front
of the brain, you will now “cognize” the existence of an apple in
front of you. The details of this cognitive process are unknown. It is
assumed, however, that you “cognize the apple” when a perceptual
representation of the apple matches the memory representation of
an apple in your brain. It is also assumed that when the memory
representation of an apple is activated, you visualize or imagine
an apple. It is assumed that the representation of an apple exists
in the human brain in some form or another. Where does this
representation exist?
Functionalists admit the existence of representation, whereas
behaviorists do not. Behaviorism excludes subjective matters such
as consciousness and the mind and therefore does not discuss
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Mechanical Systems Without Representation 53
representation as a means of explaining consciousness and the
mind. It also denies the idea of a “central control tower” of any kind
that controls consciousness and the mind to work properly as an
intermediary of representation.
Denial of the central control tower originally comes from
negation of the “homunculus.” It was once believed that a very small
human being called a homunculus lived inside the brain of a human
and controlled the person’s consciousness and mind, and that the
spiritual activities of humans were governed by commands given by
the homunculus. If one agrees with the existence of the homunculus,
it is then necessary to discuss the working of the brain of the
homunculus, making for a circuitous discussion that goes around
endlessly without reaching a conclusion. How to stop this regression
is one of the serious problems related to consciousness.
Descartes explained that the pineal body at the center of the
brain played the role of a central control tower, but this idea is denied
by modern brain physiology. For these reasons, behaviorists seem
not to agree to the idea of a central control tower.
Personally, I believe that although the idea of a central control
tower can reasonably be denied, we should admit the existence
of asynchronous parallel and distributed systems. According to
physiological knowledge about the human brain, it is certain that
information is processed by nerve networks and the relevant
processing is done by asynchronous parallel and distributed
systems.
Connectionism is a theory that attempts to create such asyn-
chronous parallel and distributed systems using artificial nerve net-
works called neural networks. At present, however, because highly
functional computers are available, we do not use asynchronous
parallel and distributed systems but simulate similar functions using
ordinary synchronous computers. The term “simulate” here means
mimicking.
4.8 Mechanical Systems Without Representation
The mechanical system without representation is generally known
as a speed governor.
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54 Human Consciousness and the Mind
Figure 4.9. Heron’s steam engine.
The role of this machine is to maintain the constant rotating
speed of a flywheel driven by a steam engine. A steam engine is a
mechanical system that makes use of the force of steam input into a
cylinder to push down a plug-shaped component called a piston. The
rod-like component attached to the piston pushes down the flywheel
to convert the vertical motion of the piston into rotary motion.
Heron, ancient Greek mathematician and engineer, first invented
a steam engine in the form of a rotary device (Fig. 4.9). His steam
engine could not keep the rotating speed constant.
James Watt (1736–1819), a Scottish mechanical engineer, in-
vented this speed governor in 1774. To keep the rotating speed
constant, the steam pressure should be basically constant. Actually,
however, the rotating force is used to do some work, and therefore
when the workload varies, the rotating force also varies even when
the steam pressure remains constant. For example, when a steam
locomotive running across flatlands starts climbing a slope, it will
slow down if nothing is done. This is called load fluctuation in
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Mechanical Systems Without Representation 55
physics. What should be done to maintain a constant rotating
speed? The answer is to control the steam pressure relative to
the load fluctuation. Watt’s speed governor exactly satisfied such
requirements for pressure control.
In 1774, steam engines were a practical mechanical system for
delivering power safely and stably and contributed to the Industrial
Revolution. Since then, a large volume of materials have been easily
transported using steam locomotives and steamships to support the
explosive development of industry.
Let us go back to the story of representation.
A researcher says that representation does not exist in Watt’s
speed governor. Is it true that his speed governor does not have any-
thing that corresponds to “images of external objects that emerge
on the consciousness” as representations? One point needs investi-
gation. The metallic balls, the central components of Watt’s speed
governor (Fig. 4.10), spin outward from the central rotating shaft by
centrifugal force as the rotating speed of the steam engine increases.
At this time, the angle between the metallic arms holding the balls
increases. When the angle of the balls increases, the steam valve is
gradually closed to decrease the rotating speed. Conversely, when
the angle decreases, the steam valve is opened to increase the rotat-
ing speed. The angle between the ball arms represents the internal
condition of the steam engine, and we may call it a representation.
Figure 4.10. Watt’s speed governor.
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