Table of Contents

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Title page

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Part I: Introduction

Chapter 1: Modeling of electromigration phenomena

Abstract:

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Analytical methods

1.3 Numerical methods

1.4 Conclusion

Chapter 2: Modeling electromigration using the peridynamics approach

Abstract:

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Previous approaches to modeling electromigration (EM)

2.3 Peridynamics (PD)

2.4 PD and EM

2.5 Illustrative example

2.6 Computational requirements: present and future

2.7 Conclusions

Chapter 3: Modeling, simulation, and X-ray microbeam studies of electromigration

Abstract:

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Modeling and simulation approaches

3.3 Experimental, modeling and simulation findings

3.4 Conclusions

3.5 Acknowledgments

Part II: Electromigration in copper interconnects

Chapter 4: X-ray microbeam analysis of electromigration in copper interconnects

Abstract:

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Samples and X-ray microdiffraction methods

4.3 Electromigration (EM)-induced strains in conductor lines

4.4 Conclusions and summary

4.6 Appendix

Chapter 5: Voiding in copper interconnects during electromigration

Abstract:

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Void nucleation

5.3 Void growth

5.4 Immortality

5.5 Future trends

5.6 Acknowledgements

Chapter 6: The evolution of microstructure in copper interconnects during electromigration

Abstract:

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Copper microstructure evolution during electromigration

6.3 Plasticity and materials degradation mechanisms in copper interconnects

6.4 Implications for the reliability of advanced copper interconnect schemes

6.5 Conclusions and future trends

Chapter 7: Scaling effects on electromigration reliability of copper interconnects

Abstract:

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Mass transport during electromigration (EM)

7.3 Effect of via scaling on EM reliability

7.4 Multi-linked statistical tests for via reliability

7.5 Methods to improve the EM lifetime

7.6 Conclusion and future trends

7.7 Acknowledgements

Chapter 8: Electromigration failure in nanoscale copper interconnects

Abstract:

8.1 Process solutions being developed for copper interconnects

8.2 Electromigration (EM) scaling by generation

8.3 Suppression by metal capping: blocking rate-limiting EM pathways

8.4 Copper microstructure impact

8.5 Conclusions

8.6 Acknowledgements

Part III: Electromigration in solder

Chapter 9: Electromigration-induced microstructural evolution in lead-free and lead–tin solders

Abstract:

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Intermetallic compound formation

9.3 Void formation

9.4 Formation of whisker and hillock

9.5 Grain reorientation and grain rotation

9.6 Dissolution and recrystallization

Chapter 10: Electromigration in flip-chip solder joints

Abstract:

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Electromigration (EM)-induced voiding failure of solder interconnects

10.3 Joule heating-enhanced dissolution of under bump metallurgy (UBM) and the diffusion of on-chip metal interconnects

10.4 Stress-related degradation of solder interconnects under EM

10.5 Thermomigration (TM) behavior in solder interconnects under a thermal gradient

10.6 Conclusions

10.7 Acknowledgements

Index