Index
A
Acetaldehyde, 99
Acid Rain Program (EPA), 20
Activity-based costing, 399
Addition reactions, 185–186
Adsorption, 276
Advective transport, 370–371
Aggregate risk, 58
Agricultural activities, contaminants originating from, 23
Air pollution, 14–15
Air quality issues, 14–22
air pollution, 14–15
air toxics, 21–22
criteria air pollutants, 15–21
Air releases, 218
Air-soil transport, 368–369
Air toxics, 21–22
Air/water transport, 368
Allen, David T., 93, 177, 199, 397, 419, 461
Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study, 527
American Chemistry Council, 25, 87
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 46, 52, 204
water quality issues, 22–23
website, 527
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIchE) website, 527
American Institute of Chemical Engineers code of ethics, 87
American Petroleum Institute, 25
Pollution Prevention Task Force of, 74
AMOCO/US EPA Pollution Prevention Project, 311
Anastas, Paul T., 177
Aquatic biota, effective chemical releases to surface waters on, 161–164
Aqueous environment lifetimes, estimating, 122–124
Area monitoring, 145–146
Area sources, of air pollution, 14–15
Atmospheric distillation tower, 347
Atmospheric inversions, 17
Atmospheric lifetimes, estimating, 118–122 Atom economy, 181
Automobile, as inefficient user of primary energy, 8
B
Back-end costs, 400
Background cancer level, 57
Balance equations, 372–374
Barbier-Grignard reaction, 183
Beaver, E., 245
Bellows valves, 292
Benchmark Dose concept, 48, 52–53
Best available control technology (BACT), 69
Bioaccumulation, 131, 203, 209, 212, 214
Bioavailability of a substance, 54, 169
Bioconcentration factor, 95, 108–110, 129
Biodegradability, 129
estimating, 124–125
Biomarkers, 55
Blouin, John, 35
Boiling point/melting point, 97–100
Breathing losses, 238–239
C
Cancer slope factor, 46
Canned motor pumps, 293
Capital, 399
Capital budgeting, 399
Carbon dioxide, 10
Carbon monoxide (CO), 17–18, 70, 433
health hazard posed by, 17–18
transportation sources, 18
Carcinogenic toxicity, 387–390
Cargo carrier loading, 232
Center for Waste Reduction Technologies (CWRT), 407, 410
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 205
ChemAlliance regulartory tour, 528
Chemical and physical property estimation:
bioconcentration factor, 108–110
boiling point/melting point, 97–100
Henry’s Law constant, 112–115
octanol-water partition coefficient, 103–108
soil sorption coefficients, 115–117
vapor pressure, 100–103
water solubility, 110–112
Chemical engineer responsibilities, 81–90
for chemical process safety, 82–85
Bhopal accident, 82–85
Flixborough Works of Nypro Limited, 82
for environmental protection, 85–87
ethics, 87
Chemical exposures, 45, 54–55, 140, 143
controlling dermal exposure, 152–153
Chemical Manufacturers Association (CMA), 87
Code of Product Stewardship, 419, 421
Chemical processes/chemical products, role of, 4–6
choice of refrigerant for low-temperature condenser, 6
industrial cleaner, formulation of, 5
paint solvent, formulation of, 5
ChemSTEER, 532–33
CHIEF site, 525
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 10, 12–13, 182
Chromium, 54
Cis-2-butene, 121
Clean Air Act (1970), 15, 19–20, 24, 41, 67, 68, 259, 261, 410, 480–482
enforcement, 482
hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), 482
New Source Performance Standards, 480–482
state implementation plan, 480
Clean Water Act (1972), 41, 67, 68, 69, 482–484
dredge and fill permits and discharge of oil or hazardous substances, 484
industrial pretreatment standards, 483–484
monitoring/inspection requirements, 483
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), 483
publicly owned treatment works (POTW) construction program, 483
Co-products, 428–430
Coarse particle inhalation, 20
Coarse particles, 19
Coating Alternative Guide (CAGE), 529
Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.), 63
Code of Product Stewardship, 419, 421
Competitive-consecutive reaction, 270
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 67, 68, 486–487
potentially responsible party (PRP) liability, 487
Compressors, 293
Computerized image analysis techniques, 152
Continuous-flow stirred-tank reactor (CSTR), 266, 298
Criteria air pollutants:
carbon monoxide (CO), 17–18
hydrocarbons, 17
lead, 19
and National Ambient Air Quality Standards, 15–16
oxides of nitrogen (NOx), 17
particulate matter (PM), 19–20
sulfur dioxide/nitrogen oxides, and acid deposition, 20–21
VOC emissions, 17–18
Cumulative Exposure Project—Toxicity Database, 529
Cumulative risk assessment, 58
CWRT Total Cost Assessment Manual (TCA), AIchE website, 527
Cyclohexane, 240
Cyclohexanone, 244
D
Data aggregation, 431–432
Deck-fitting loss factors, 503–504
Dedicated service, 234
Dermal exposure, 4, 54–55, 144–145, 151–156
assessing, 151–156
to chemicals in the ambient environment, 160–161
framework, 144–145
modeling, 153–155
Desalter, 347
Design for the Environment (DIE) program, 524
Designing safer chemicals, 167–170
reducing dose, 168–169
reducing toxicity, 169–170
Developmental toxicity, 45
Diaphragm pumps, 293
Diaphragm valves, 292
Dichloroethylene, 107–108
Diels Alder reactions, 183
Diphenyl carbonate (DPC), 259
Direct release to the environment, 71
Dispersion coefficients, regression equations for, 159
Dispersion models, 149
Distillation, 277
Domed external floating-roof tank, 287–289, 288
concerns associated with, 54
dose-response curve, 52–53
developing data to support, 52
and non-cancer risk, 57
outcome of effort, 53
testing, 54
E
E-FAST, 533
Eco-industrial parks, 468–471
Ecology, 23–24
ECOSAR, 533
Ecosystem risk estimation, 126–127
Ecosystems, shared characteristics of, 23
ECOTOX Database System, 530
EFRAT, 533
Elimination reactions, 185–186
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), 24, 67, 68, 487–488
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI), 488
Emission factors, 157–158
Emission monitoring, 291
Emissions/wastes:
balance equations, 372–374
estimation of environmental fates of, 362–374
fugacity/fugacity capacity, 364–367
intermedia transport, 367–371
advective transport, 370–371
air-soil transport, 368–369
air/water transport, 368
soil-to-water transfer, 370
water-sediment transport, 369–370
reaction loss processes, 371–372
tier 3 metrics for environmental risk evaluation of process designs, 375–390
acid rain, 379
global warming, 376–378
ozone depletion, 378–379
smog formation, 379–386
toxicity, 386–390
Energy consumption, 7–9
Energy sources, availability of, 7–8
Enforcement:
Clean Air Act (1970), 482
Clean Water Act (1972), 483
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 487
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act EPCRA, 488
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 478
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), 479
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 486
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 476–477
Enviro$en$e Solvent Substitution Data Systems, 526, 530
Envirofacts, 530
Environmental Accounting Project, 525
Environmental cost accounting, 397–416
activity-based costing, 399
capital, 399 capital budgeting, 399
definitions, 398–400
external costs, 398
external intangible costs, 413–414
financial accounting, 398
full-cost accounting, 399
indirect costs, 398
internal costs, 398
internal intangible costs, 412–413
liability costs, 407–411
life-cycle costing, 399–400
management accounting, 398
overhead, 398–399
total cost assessment, 399
Environmental costs:
framework for evaluating, 402–405
hidden, 405–407
magnitudes of, 400–402
Environmental Fate Database, 530
Environmental fate, evaluating, 93–138
Environmental fate, using property esti-mates to estimate, 127–131
Environmental impact potentials tables, 509–513
Environmental issues, 3–33, 4–6
air quality issues, 14–22
chemical processes/chemical products, role of, 4–6
ecology, 23–24
global, 7–14
major, 6–7
natural resources, 24
waste flows in the U.S., 24–28
Environmental Law Handbook
Environmental law/regulations, 63–79
administrative agencies, creation of, 64–66
defined, 64
details of, 475–489
evolution of regulatory/voluntary programs, 67–70
federal environmental statutes, 66–67
pollution prevention concepts/terminology, 70–76
sources of, 64
Environmental Law Statutes, 64
Environmental performance, assessing, 244–246
Environmental performance during process synthesis, 199–249
tier 1 environmental performance tools, 200–215
tier 2 environmental performance tools, 215–246
tier 3 environmental performance tools, 246
Environmental persistence:
aqueous environment lifetimes, estimating, 122–124
atmospheric lifetimes, estimating, 118–122
estimating, 118–126
overall biodegradability, estimating, 124–125
Environmental phase partitioning, properties influencing, 96
Environmental Priority Strategy (EPS) system, 438
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 93–94
Environmental release assessment, 216–219
basics of releases, 216
process analysis, 217–219
releases to land, 218–219
underground injection releases, 218
water releases, 218
release assessment components, 216–217
Environmental risk screenings, 93–95
Environmental risks, classifying based on chemical structure, 131–133
EPA CHIEF website, 239
EPISUITE software package, 203, 213, 533–535
EPS Terminology Reference System (TRS), 526
Estimation of environmental fates of emissions/wastes, 362–374
fugacity/fugacity capacity, 364–367
air phase, 364–365
soil phase, 366
water phase, 365–366
Ethanol, 99
Ethanol-water distillation, energy savings in, 279–280
Ethylene glycol, 100
Evaporative losses from static liquid pools, 237–238
Exit costs, 400
Exposure, 57
evaluating, 139–175
occupational exposures, 140–156
recognizing, 140
route and magnitude of, 4
using property estimates to estimate, 127–131
Exposure assessment, 42, 54–56, 55
biomarkers, 55
for chemicals in the ambient environment, 156–167
defined, 54
dermal exposure, 54–55
ingestion, 55
personal monitoring data, 55
routes of exposure, 54–56
Exposure Assessment Tools and Models website, 523–524
Exposure pathways, occupational exposures, 143–145
External costs, 398
External-floating roof tank, 288, 296
External intangible costs, 413–414,
Exxon Valdez oil spill, 23
F
Factor Information Retrieval (FIRE) System, 222
Fault tree analysis, 40
Federal environmental statutes, 66–67
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 66, 68, 477–478
enforcement, 478
labeling, 477
pesticide registration, 477
Federal Register, 64
Feedstocks, 178–181
Financial accounting, 398
Fine particle inhalation, 19–20
FIRE (Factor Information Retrieval Data System), 535
Fixed-roof storage tanks
paint solar absorbance for, 501
total losses from, 494–496
Fixed-roof tanks, 239, 287, 288
Flixborough Works of Nypro Limited, 82
Floating roof tanks rim-seal loss factors for, 502
Floating-roof tanks, 239
Fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU), 254
Fluidized bed reactor (FBR), 298
Forestry practices and erosion of topsoil, 23
Formaldehyde, 17
Friedel Crafts reaction, 186–188, 196
Froiman, Gail, 35
Fugacity/fugacity capacity, 364–367
air phase, 364–365
soil phase, 366
water phase, 365–366
Fugitive source pollution prevention, 286–293
emission reduction methods, 291–293
fugitive emission profiles, 289–291
reducing emissions, 289–293
Full-cost accounting, 399
Functional units, 424
G
Gas pipelines, failure frequency of, 41
Gaussian dispersion model, 158
Genotoxic chemicals, 45–46
global energy issues, 7–9
Global energy use, disparity in, 8
Global environmental issues, 7–14
global energy issues, 7–9
global warming, 9–10
ozone depletion in stratosphere, 10–14
Global warming, 9–10, 376–378, 433
Glove materials, performance characteristics of, 153
Glycols, 100
Granular activated carbon (GAC), 276
Green accounting practices, 400
Green chemical synthesis pathways, quantitative/optimization-based frameworks for the design of, 191–195
defined, 177–178
functional group approaches to, 190–191
design for innocuous fate, 191
elimination of toxic functional group, 190–191
reduce bioavailability, 191
structure-activity relationship, 190–191
methodologies, 178–191
feedstocks, 178–181
solvents, 181–185
synthesis pathways, 185–189
Green Chemistry Expert System (GCES), 170, 178, 195, 535
case studies, 195–196
Green Chemistry Program website, 524
Green Engineering Program website, 523
Greenhouse effect, 9–10
Ground-level ozone, 17
Groundwater contamination, 164–167
origin of, 22
H
Hammet constant, 123–124
for cancer/other toxic effects, 45–47
hazard references, 50–52
for non-cancer endpoints, 48–49
Structure Activity Relationships (SARs), 50
Hazard, defined, 38
Hazard references, 50–52
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), 21
Hazardous Substances Data Bank(HSDB), 51, 530
HAZ-OP analysis, 40, 294–296, 309
and pollution prevention assessment, 294–296
Health Effects Notebook for Hazardous Air Pollutants, 531
Healthy ecosystems, maintenance of, 7
Held effects studies, 45
Henry’s Law constant, 95, 97, 112–115
Hidden environmental costs, 405–407
High-density polyethylene (HDPE), 260
Hydrodynamic dispersion, 165
Hydrogen abstraction rate constants, group contributions and substitutent factors for, 122
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), 298–299
Hydrolysis, 123–124
Hydrophobic compounds, absorption of, 154
Hydropower energy generation, 9
Hydroxyl radicals, 118–119
I
Impact scores, 434–436
Inderect costs, 398
Industrial cleaner, formulation of, 5
Industrial ecology, 461–474
assessing waste exchange/byproduct synergies opportunities, 471–472
basic principles of, 470
defined, 465–466
eco-industrial parks, 468–471
material flows in chemical manufacturing, 466–468
Industrial Hygience and Toxicology (Patty), 52
Ingestion exposure, 4, 55, 145, 156
Inhalation exposure, 4, 54–55, 143–144
dispersion models, 149–150
mass balance model, 146–149
modeling, 146–150
Inhalation reference concentrations, 204, 207–208
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 10
Intermedia transport, 367–371
advective transport, 370–371
air-soil transport, 368–369
air/water transport, 368
soil-to-water transfer, 370
water-sediment transport, 369–370
Internal costs, 398
Internal-floating roof tank, 287, 288, 296
Internal intangible costs, 412–413, 412–413
Internal Standards Organization (ISO), 400
Interpretation step, 425
Inventory control, 72
Involuntary risk, 36
ISSDS (Integrated Solvent Substitution Data System), 531
K
Kalundbord (Denmark) Ecopark, 468–470
L
Land, releases to, 218–219
Lead, 19
Leak detection and repair (LDAR) programs, 291–293
Leakless valves, 292
Liability costs, 407–411
Life-cycle assessment, 421–432
defined, 422
definitions/methodology, 422–425
functional units, 424
interpretation step, 425
life-cycle impact assessment, 425
life-cycle inventory, 424–425
movement analysis, 425
practical limits to, 440–441
streamlined, 441–447
advantages, 447
data gathering for inventories/characterization, 441–442
guidance, 447
pitfalls, 447
qualitative techniques for inventories/characterization, 442–447
system boundaries, 422–424
Life-cycle costing, 399–400
Life-cycle data, interpretation of, 440–441
Life-cycle impact assessment, 425, 432–441
characterization step, 432–437
impact scores, 434–436
potency factors, 434–437
Life-cycle inventories, 425–432
co-products, 428–430
data aggregation, 431–432
defined, 424–425
Life-cycle of studies, 448–453
product comparison, 448
product design and improvement, 450–453
improving existing products, 451–452
supplier selection, 450
using light-cycle concepts in early product design phases, 452–453
public sector uses, 448–450
strategic planning, 448
Life cycles, 419
Light-cycle costing, 400
Loading operations, saturation factors for, 236
Loading transport containers, 231–237
Localized ventilation, 149
Locating and Estimating Air Emissions from Sources (L&E), 222
Locating and Estimating (L & E) documents CHIEF site, 525
Lost capacity, 406
Lost raw materials, 406
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), 260
Lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL), 48–49
M
Mackay Level III Version 2.20, 535
Major environmental issues, overview of, 6–7
Management accounting, 398
Mass-balance model, 146–149, 150
Mass exchange network synthesis, 333–346
Material flows in chemical manufacturing, 466–468
Material Safety Data Sheet (MDSD), 51, 68, 142–143, 528
Material selection for unit operations, pollution prevention in, 253–257
Measured release data for a chemical, 220–221
Mechanical seals, 292–293
Melting point, 97–100
Membrane separative reactors, main modes of operation for, 285
Meteorological data, U.S. locations, 501–502
Methanol, 284
Methyl isocyanate (MIC), 82–85, 266
Methyl methacrylate, 201, 203, 211–212
Michael addition reaction, 170
Mobile sources, of air pollution, 14, 157
Modeled release estimates, 231–239
evaporative losses from static liquid pools, 237–238
loading transport containers, 231–237
storage tank working and breathing losses, 238–239
Modified selectivity, 263
Molecular connectivity, 491–492
Molecular diffusion theory, 150
Molina, Mario, 12
Montreal Protocol, 13–14
Movement analysis, 425
N
Naphthalene, 103
National Air Quality Emission Trends Re-port, 15
National Ambient Air Quality Standards(NAAQS), 15, 41, 221
National industrial waste trends data, sources of, 25
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 205
website, 528
National Library of Medicine, 51
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminstration (NOAA)
Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, 528
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), 69, 483
National Primary Drinking Water Standards, 164
National Research Council (NRC), 42
National Toxicology Program (NTP), 529
Natural disasters, 36
Natural resources, 24
depletion of, 7
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, 51, 531
Nitrogen oxides(NOx), 17
No-observed-averse-effect level (NOAEL), 48-49
Non-carcinogenic toxicity, 386-387
Nongenotoxic carcinogens, 46
Nuclear power, 9
Nypro Limited, Fixborough Words, 63
O
Occupational exposures, 139–175
characterization of the workplace, 141–143
dermal exposure, 151–156
assessing, 151–156
modeling, 153–155
exposure pathways, 143–145
dermal exposure, 144–145
ingestion exposure, 145
inhalation exposure, 143–144
inhalation exposures, modeling, 146–150
limitations on exposures to chemicals, 140–150
worker exposure, monitoring, 145–146
Occupational Safety and Health Act(OSHA), 67, 68, 140, 205, 478–479
enforcement, 479
Hazard Communication Standard, 479
recordkeeping and inspection requirements, 479
website, 529
workplace health and safety standards, 479
Ocean water, evaporation of, 22
Octane, 121
Octanol-water partition coefficient, 103–108, 115
Off-site recycle, 71
On-site recycle, 71
OncoLogic, 536
Online databases, 529–32
Oral response factors, 204
Oral slope factor, 208
Organic Chemical Manufacturing (OCM), 222
Organic liquids, vapor pressure equation constants for, 499–500
Organic vapor analyzer (OVA), 291–293
OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits(OSHA PELs), 141
OSHA-regulated carcinogens, 47
Overhead, 398–399
Oxidative coupling of methane (OCM), 283
Ozone depletion in stratosphere, 10–14
P
P2Workshop, 528–529
Packed seals, 292–293
Paint solvent, formulation of, 5
Parallel reaction, 263
PARIS II program, 536
Particulate matter (PM), 19–20
PCBs, 24
Percutaneous exposure, 55
Permissible exposure limits (PELs), 204–207
Persistence, 131, 203, 209, 212, 214
Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic(PBT) Chemical Program website, 524
Personal monitoring, 145–146
Personnel costs, 406
Petrochemicals, properties of, 497–498
Phosgene process, 259
Point sources, 22
Pollution prevention:
flowsheet analysis for, 309–359
levels for hierarchical analysis for, 311
process design modification for, 75
process energy integration, 313–316
process flowsheet, case study of, 347–354
process mass integration, 317–346
mass exchange network synthesis, 333–346
segregation/mixing/recycle of streams, optimizing strategies for, 327–332
source-sink mapping, 317–327
Pollution Prevention Act (1990), 67, 68, 70–72, 74–75, 488–489
Pollution prevention applications for sepa-rate reactors, 283–286
Pollution prevention assessment, and HAZOP analysis, 294–296
Pollution Prevention Code of Management Practice, 87
Pollution prevention for chemical reactors:
material use and selection, 258–261
catalysts, 260–261
raw materials and feedstocks, 259–60
solvents, 260
reaction type and reactor choice, 261–268
reactor operation, 268–274
effect of reactant concentration, 273
mixing, 269–273
reaction temperature, 268–269
Pollution prevention for separate devices, 274–282
mass separating agent, choice of, 274–276
process design and operation heuristics for separation technologies, 275–280
Pollution prevention for unit operations, 251–308
energy consumption, 252
material selection, 251, 253–257
material storage and transfer, 251
operating conditions, 251
process safety, 252
waste generation mechanisms, 251
Pollution prevention in storage tanks/fugitive sources, 286–293
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 24
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocrbons (PAHs), 21
Polyethylene, 433
Polypropylene, 260
Polystyrene, 260
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 259, 266
Potency factors, 434–437
Potentially responsible parties (PRPs), 69, 407
Preliminary risk screenings, 93–95
Premanufacture notice (PMN), 63, 94
Pressure tanks, 288
Pressurized tanks, 239
Primary pollutants, 15
Primary producers, 23
Primary standards, 15
Process design, 453
Process energy integration, 313–316
Process flowsheet:
case study of, 347–354
environmental performance of, evaluating, 361–396
Process hazard analysis, 40
Process life cycles, 420
Process mass integration, 317–346
mass exchange network synthesis, 333–346
segregation/mixing/recycle of streams, optimizing strategies for, 327–332
source-sink mapping, 317–327
Product life cycles, 419–421
life-cycle assessment, 421–432
defined, 422
definitions/methodology, 422–425
functional units, 424
interpretation step, 425
life-cycle impact assessment, 425
life-cycle inventory, 424–425
movement analysis, 425
system boundaries, 422–424
life-cycle inventories, 425–432
co-products, 428–430
data aggregation, 431–432
Propylene, 128
Prothero, Scott, 199
Publicly owned treatment works (POTW), 161–162, 161–163, 217, 483
Pumps, sealless designs for, 293
R
Raoult’s Law, 235
Raw material acquisition, 425–426
Reaction coupled with membrane separation, 285
Reaction loss processes, 371–372
Reaction selectivity, 263
Reactor operation, 268–269, 268–274
effect of reactant concentration, 273
mixing, 269–273
Recommended exposure limits (RELs), 204–207
Recycling, 426
Reference Concentration (RfC), 48
Reference Dose (RfD), 48–49
Reformulated gasoline (RFG) production, 261
Refrigerant, choice of, for low-temperature condenser, 6
Release characterization and documentation, 239–243
case study, 240–243
Release quantification methods, 220–231
emission factors, 221–222
emissions from process units and fugitive sources, 222–225
losses of residuals from cleaning of drums and tanks, 225–227
measured release data for a chemical, 220–221
release data for a surrogate chemical, 221
secondary emissions from utility sources, 228–231
Renewable fuels, 9
Renewable resources, 24
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act(RCRA), 24, 26, 67, 68, 484–486
generator requirements, 485
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act(RCRA) (cont.)
identification/listing of hazardous waste, 485
other requirements, 485–486
Resource management techniques, 24
Reversible reactions, 263, 264
Risk, 35–62
aggregate, 58
categories of, 36
cumulative, 58
defined, 35
description of, 36–39
hazard, 38
hazard assessment, 44–52
involuntary risk, 36
natural disasters, 36
and probability, 38
voluntary risk, 36
Risk assessment, 35–36
exposure assessment, 42, 54–56
hazard assessment, 42
integrating with process design, 296–301
overview of concepts, 42–44
process, 44
risk characterization, 42, 57–58
team, 42–44
value of, in engineering profession, 39–41
Risk-based environmental law, 41–42
Risk characterization, 42, 57–58
adding risks, 58
of cancer endpoints, 57
of non-cancer endpoints, 57–58
Risk management, 44
Risk shifting, 252–253
Rowland, Sherwood, 12
S
Safe Drinking Water Act, 409
Safer chemicals, designing, 167–170
SAGE (Solvent Alternative Guide), 531
Second Law of Thermodynamics, 8
Secondary emissions from utility sources, 228–231
Secondary pollutants, 15
Secondary standards, 15
Secondary trophic producers, 23
Secure disposal, 71
Segregation/mixing/recycle of streams, optimizing strategies for, 327–332
Separative reactor, 283
Series-parallel reaction, 270
Shonnard, David, 3, 63, 81, 199
Skin exposure, direct methods for measurement of, 151–152
Skin washes, 145–146
SMILES (Simplified Molecular Input Line Entry System) tutorial, 526
Software, 532–37
Soil sorption coefficients, 115–117
correction factors for, 117
Soil-to-water transfer, 370
Solar power, 9
SOLV-DB, 532
Solvents, 181–185
federal definition of, 72
Source-sink mapping, 317–327
Splash loading method, 231
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC)Codes, 26
Static liquid pools, evaporative losses from, 237–238
Storage tank pollution prevention, 286–293
emissions, 287
limited HAZ-OP analysis, 296
safety aspects of, 295–296
storage tank types and pollution reduction strategies, 288
Storage tank working and breathing losses, 238–239
Storage tanks, 494–496
estimating emissions, 493–508
fixed-roof storage tanks:
paint solar absorbance for, 501
total losses from, 494–496
floating roof tanks, 239
rim-seal loss factors for, 502
Stratospheric ozone layer, 12
Streamlined life-cycle assessments:
advantages, 447
data gathering for inventories/characterization, 441–442
guidance, 447
pitfalls, 447
qualitative techniques for inventories/characterization, 442–447
Structural analog, 50
Structure activity relationships (SARs), 50, 97
Subchronic effects studies, 45
Submerged loading, 232
Substituton reactions, 185–186
Sulfur dioxide/nitrogen oxides, and acid deposition, 20–21
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), 24
Surface contamination, origin of, 22
Synthesis pathways, 185–189
Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
Industry (SOCMI) emission factors, 224, 289
System boundaries, 422–424
Systems Analysis Branch (SAB) website, 526
T
Tables of environmental impact potentials, 509–513
TANKS program, 536
Tetraethyl lead, 19
Third trophic producers, 23
Threshold limit values (TLVs), 52, 143, 204–207
Tier 1 environmental performance tools, 200–215
alternatives synthetic pathways, evaluating, 209–215
economic criteria, 201–202
environmental criteria, 202–204
permissible exposure limits (PELs), 204–207
recommended exposure limits (RELs), 204–207
threshold limit values (TLVs), 204–207
toxicity weighting, 207–209
Tier 2 costs, estimating, 515–521
Tier 2 environmental performance tools, 215–246
environmental performance, assessing, 244–246
environmental release assessment, 216–219
modeled release estimates, 231–239
release characterization and documentation, 239–243
release quantification methods, 220–231
Tier 3 environmental performance tools, 246
Tier 3 metrics for environmental risk evaluation of process designs, 375–390
acid rain, 379
global warming, 376–378
ozone depletion, 378–379
smog formation, 379–386
andtoxicity, 386–390
Total cost assessment, 399
Toxic agents, interaction of, 39
Toxic air pollutants, exposure to, 156–160
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI), 26, 67, 181, 208, 244, 48, 526
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 66, 68, 93–94, 126, 132, 211, 475–477
existing chemicals testing, 476
information gathering, 475
new chemical review, 476
regulatory controls and enforcement, 476–477
carcinogenic toxicity, 387–390
developmental, 45
non-carcinogenic toxicity, 386–387
Toxicity weighting, 207–209
Toxicology, the Basic Science of Poisons(Casarett/Doull), 52
Toxnet, 51
TOXNET, 532
Tracking material flows, 426
TRIAGE Chemical Studies Database, 532
Trichlorofluoromethane, 12
Tropospheric ozone, 10–12
U
UCSS (Use Clusters Scoring System), 536
Ultimate aerobic biodegradation index, group contributions to, 125
Underground injection releases, 218
United States Code (U.S.C.), 63
US Environmental Protection Agency(EPA), See Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
U.S. Geological Survey, 163
U.S. safety/health/environmental statutes implying risk assessment, 43
Utility sources, secondary emissions from, 228–231
V
Vapor balance service, 234–235
Variable-vapor-space tanks, 239, 288
Vinyl sulfones, 190
VOC emissions, 17–18
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 15, 70, 182, 289
Voluntary risk, 36
W
WAR (WAste Reduction Algorithm), 536–37
Waste flows in the U.S., 24–28
Waste treatment, 71
Waste treatment costs, estimating, 405
Wastes, estimation of environmental fates of, 362–374
Water pollution:
and leaking underground storage tanks, 22
and transportation sources, 23
Water quality issues, 22–23
Exxon Valdez oil spill, 23
Water releases, 218
Water-sediment transport, 369–370
Water solubility, 110–112, 129
Water vapor, 10
Web resources, 523–529
Wind/wind speed, 17
Wipe samples, 151–152
Worker exposure, monitoring, 145–146
Workplace Environmental Exposure Level (WEEL), 143
Workplace exposure, techniques for modeling, 56