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About the Technical Reviewer
by David Cook
Robot Building for Beginners
Copyright
About the Author
About the Technical Reviewer
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Intended Audience
"Where's the stuff about the killer saws?"
"Houston, we have a problem."
Not Ready to Learn How to Solder?
Beyond LEGO But Still Not Ready to Solder?
Note Regarding Part Lists
Getting Updates and Seeing What's New
1. Welcome Robot Inventor!
1.1. Four Disciplines
1.2. Anatomy of a Homemade Robot
1.2.1. Brains
1.2.2. Electrical Power
1.2.2.1. Power Source
1.2.2.2. Power Regulation
1.2.2.3. On/Off Switch
1.2.3. Sensors
1.2.3.1. Pushbuttons
1.2.4. Action and Feedback
1.2.4.1. Movement
1.2.4.1.1. Motor Controller
1.2.4.2. Indicator Lights
1.2.5. Miscellaneous Components
1.2.6. Body
1.2.6.1. Aesthetics
1.3. Building Up
1.3.1. Taking Small Bites
1.3.2. Making Modules
1.3.3. Keeping It Fun and Keeping It Light
1.3.4. Finding Camaraderie and Support
1.4. Onward and Upward
2. Where to Obtain Tools and Parts
2.1. Ordering Free Information
2.2. Discovering Hidden Messages
2.2.1. Considering Columns
2.2.2. Counting Pages
2.2.3. Comparing Prices
2.3. Saving Money
3. Safety
3.1. Benefiting from Age and Experience
3.2. Following Instructions
3.3. Reading Chemical Labels
3.4. Donning Safety Glasses
3.4.1. Hanging Glasses and Placing Them Face Up
3.5. Wearing Other Safety Clothes
3.6. Insuring Adequate Ventilation
3.7. Storing Properly
3.7.1. Talking About Your Activities, Materials, and Tools
3.8. Washing Before Eating
3.9. Avoiding Nasty Elements
3.9.1. Lead
3.9.2. Mercury
3.9.3. Cadmium
3.9.4. Purchasing Safer Parts Labeled RoHS
3.10. Shocking
3.10.1. AC vs. DC
3.10.2. Using Rechargeable Batteries and Professional Transformers
3.10.3. Connecting Through Circuit Breakers and GFCI Outlets
3.10.4. Saving the Ground Prong
3.10.5. Disconnecting Power
3.11. Steering Clear of Dangerous Robots
3.12. Sizing Up Motors
3.13. Lighting Up
3.14. Staying Rested and Level-Headed
4. Digital Multimeter
4.1. Must-Have Features
4.1.1. Digital
4.1.2. Digits
4.1.3. DC Voltage
4.1.4. DC Current
4.1.5. Resistance
4.1.6. Probes or Leads
4.1.7. Overload/Fuse Protection
4.2. Nice-To-Have Features
4.2.1. Capacitance
4.2.2. Diode
4.2.3. Continuity
4.2.4. Frequency
4.2.5. Duty Cycle
4.2.6. Autoranging
4.2.7. Auto Power Off
4.2.8. Transistor
4.2.9. Dual Display
4.2.10. Maximum
4.2.11. Minimum
4.2.12. Stand
4.3. Optional Features
4.3.1. Inductance
4.3.2. RS-232/USB Data Interface
4.3.3. Scope
4.3.4. Backlight
4.3.5. Stopwatch/Single Pulse Width
4.3.6. Temperature
4.3.7. Sound
4.3.8. Count
4.3.9. Bar Graph
4.3.10. Data Hold
4.3.11. Data Auto
4.3.12. High/Low/Logic
4.3.13. Memory
4.3.14. Relative
4.3.15. Offset
4.3.16. Limit Testing/Compare
4.3.17. Holster or Rubber Boot
4.4. AC Features
4.4.1. AC Voltage
4.4.2. True RMS
4.4.3. AC Current
4.5. Obtaining Hook Probe Adaptors
4.6. Comparing Actual Multimeters
4.6.1. Understanding the Features of a Low-End Multimeter
4.6.2. Understanding the Features of a Mid-Range Multimeter
4.6.3. Understanding the Features of a Higher-End Multimeter
4.6.4. Comparing Prices with Features
4.7. Proceeding Without a Meter
5. Numbers and Units
5.1. Choosing the Metric System
5.2. Reducing Powers of a Thousand
5.2.1. M & m
5.2.2. Alternative for Greek Micro
5.3. Abbreviating Units
5.4. Too Little
5.4.1. Guessing Missing Units
5.4.2. Expanding from Three Digits
5.4.3. Converting Colors to Numbers
5.4.4. Determining Component Values with a Multimeter
5.5. Base Subjects Covered
6. Robot Line-Following
6.1. Defining the Course Conditions
6.1.1. Surface Materials
6.1.2. Course Lighting
6.1.3. Defining the Line
6.1.3.1. Picking Line Marking Material
6.1.4. Curving and Crossing Lines
6.1.5. Summarizing Course Conditions
6.2. Picking the Robot's Size
6.3. Seeing Sandwich
6.3.1. Examining Sandwich
6.3.1.1. Line-Following Switch
6.3.1.2. Power Source and Power Switch
6.3.1.3. Sensors and Headlights
6.3.1.3.1. Placing the Robot on the Center of the Line
6.3.1.3.2. Adjusting Sensor Balance
6.3.1.4. Brighter-Side Indicators
6.3.1.5. The Brains
6.3.1.6. The Muscle
6.3.1.6.1. Fitting and Changing Wheels
6.3.2. Sandwich Body
6.3.2.1. Connecting It Together
6.3.2.1.1. Physical Connections
6.3.2.1.2. Electrical Connections
6.4. Obtaining a Kit
6.5. Building Up
7. Nine-Volt Batteries
7.1. Testing Battery Voltage
7.1.1. Setting Up a Multimeter for Voltage Testing
7.1.2. Interpreting Test Results
7.2. 9 V Battery Characteristics
7.3. 9 V Battery Recommendations
7.3.1. Recommended
7.3.2. Nickel-Metal Hydride
7.3.2.1.
7.3.2.1.1. Retaining Charge When Not in Use
7.3.3. Lithium-Polymer
7.3.4. Alkaline
7.3.5. Specialized Use
7.3.6. Lithium
7.3.7. Not Recommended
7.3.7.1. Carbon and Zinc
7.3.7.2. Nickel-Cadmium
7.3.7.3. e2 Titanium and Ultra
7.4. Battery Brand Names
7.5. Using 9 V Batteries in Robots
7.5.1. Mounting Batteries
7.6. Powering Forward
8. Clips and Test Leads
8.1. The Gators Are Hungry Tonight
8.2. Obtaining Hook Clips
8.3. Testing Jumpers
8.3.1. Setting Up a Multimeter for Continuity Testing
8.3.2. Testing an Open Connection
8.3.3. Testing a Shorted Connection
8.3.4. Testing an Alligator Connection (Shorted)
8.4. Discovering Unintended Connections
8.5. Plumbing with Jumpers
9. Resistors
9.1. Limiting Power with Resistors
9.2. Obtaining a Resistor Variety Pack
9.3. Understanding Size and Tolerance
9.4. Cut It Out
9.4.1. Obtaining a Wire Cutter Tool
9.5. Resistance and Ohms
9.6. Measuring Resistance
9.6.1. Interpreting the Resistance Displayed on the Meter
9.6.2. Experiencing Resistance Ranges
9.7. Looking Up Resistor Values Online
9.8. Labeling and Storing
9.8.1. Obtaining Storage Cases
9.9. Resisting the Temptation to Skip Ahead
10. LEDs
10.1. Learning About LED Attributes
10.1.1. LED Sizes
10.1.1.1. Using Calipers to Measure LED Diameter
10.1.2. LED Shapes
10.1.3. LED Lens Clarities
10.1.3.1. Water Clear
10.1.3.2. White Diffused
10.1.3.3. Colored Diffused
10.1.4. LED Viewing Angles
10.1.5. LED Colors
10.1.5.1. Relating Color to a Wavelength
10.1.5.2. Indicating Color via the CIE Standard Colorimetric System
10.1.6. LED Brightness
10.1.6.1. Super Ultra High Brightness to the Max
10.1.7. LED Efficiency
10.2. Extreme Close Up of an LED
10.3. Identifying Multicolor LEDs
10.3.1. Bicolor
10.3.2. Tricolor or Tri-state
10.3.3. Full Color
10.4. Testing an LED
10.4.1. Setting Up a Multimeter for Diode Testing
10.4.2. Interpreting LED Test Results
10.4.2.1. Forward Voltage Drop
10.5. Variety Pack
10.6. Brightening Your Way
11. Power On!
11.1. Introducing the Parts List
11.1.1. Testing the Parts Before Assembly
11.2. Reading a Schematic
11.3. Building the Power Indicator Circuit
11.3.1. Do You See The Light?
11.3.2. Experimenting with the Power Indicator Circuit
11.4. Understanding the Roles of Each Component
11.5. Measuring the Power Indicator Circuit
11.5.1. Measuring In-Circuit Voltage
11.5.1.1. Measuring Voltage "At" a Point
11.5.1.2. Measuring Voltage "Drop" or Voltage "Across" a Part
11.5.1.3. Summarizing Circuit Voltage
11.5.2. Measuring Current Flow
11.5.3. Calculating Battery Life
11.5.3.1. Extending Battery Life
11.5.3.2. Selecting Resistors
11.5.3.3. Calculating Current
11.5.3.3.1. Minimum Resistor for LED Formula
11.5.4. Don't Measure Voltage with Probe in Current Terminal
11.6. Circuit Summary
12. Solderless Prototyping
12.1. Needing A Better Way
12.2. Solderless Breadboards
12.2.1. Connecting with Holes
12.2.1.1. 5-Position Group
12.2.1.2. Center Gap
12.2.1.3. 25-Position Distribution Bus
12.2.2. Binding Posts
12.2.2.1. Banana Plugs
12.2.3. Hungry for Breadboards
12.3. Solderless Breadboard Wire
12.3.1. Choosing Jumper Wire
12.3.1.1. Obtaining Reinforced Jumper Wire
12.3.1.2. Obtaining Flat, Ready-Made Jumper Wire
12.4. Making Your Own Jumper Wire
12.4.1. Stripping the Insulation Off of the End of the Wire
12.4.1.1. Choosing Wire Strippers
12.4.2. Cutting the Wire to Length
12.4.3. Bending the End of the Wire
12.4.3.1. Selecting Electrical Pliers
12.4.3.1.1. Obtaining Smooth-Jaw Needle-Nose Pliers
12.4.3.1.2. Obtaining Serrated-Jaw Long-Nose Pliers
12.5. Making The Connection
13. Solderless Breadboard Setup
13.1. Considering Power Sources
13.1.1. Obtaining 9 V Battery Snap Connectors
13.1.2. Connecting Power to Binding Posts
13.2. Choosing a Power Switch
13.2.1. Understanding SPDT
13.2.2. Adding a Power Switch to the Breadboard
13.3. Connecting Power Buses
13.3.1. Adapting Multimeter Probes Using Jumper Wire
13.3.2. Connecting the Lower Bus
13.3.3. Split Down the Middle
13.4. Installing a Power Indicator LED
13.4.1. Checking Voltages at Certain Points
13.4.2. Trimming Leads
13.5. Demystifying the Robot's Power Switch
13.6. Ready for More
14. Variable Resistors
14.1. Potentiometers
14.1.1. Trimpot
14.1.2. Turning the Dial
14.1.3. Obtaining Assorted Trimpots
14.1.4. Testing Potentiometers
14.1.4.1. Measuring the Maximum Resistance of a Potentiometer
14.1.4.2. Measuring the Variable Resistance of a Potentiometer
14.1.4.3. Linear Versus Logarithmic/Exponential
14.2. Variable Brightness LED Circuit
14.2.1. Building the Variable Brightness LED Circuit
14.3. Brightness Balancing Circuit
14.3.1. Building the Brightness Balanced LEDs Circuit
14.4. Cadmium-Sulfide Photoresistors
14.4.1. Obtaining Assorted Photoresistors
14.4.2. Experiencing the Variable Resistance of a Photoresistor
14.5. Light-Controlled Circuit
14.6. Balanced Brightness-Sensing Circuit
14.6.1. Part List for Balanced Brightness-Sensing Circuit
14.6.2. Brightness-Sensing Pairs
14.6.3. Matching Photoresistors
14.6.4. Resistance-Balancing Potentiometer
14.6.5. Current-Limiting Resistor
14.6.6. Test Points
14.6.6.1. Calculating the Voltages
14.6.6.2. Evaluating Test Point 1
14.6.7. Converting Resistance to Voltage with a Voltage Divider
14.6.8. Building the Balanced Brightness-Sensing Circuit
14.6.9. Inability to Balance the Brightness-Sensing Circuit
15. Comparators
15.1. Voltage Comparator
15.1.1. Examining the LM393
15.1.1.1. Turning to the Datasheet
15.1.1.2. Inspecting the Pinouts
15.1.1.2.1. Locating the Power Supply Pins
15.1.1.2.2. Identifying the Comparators
15.1.2. Obtaining Comparators
15.2. Brightness Comparator Circuit
15.2.1. Comparing a Schematic with a Wiring Diagram
15.2.2. Labeling Parts
15.2.3. Drawing Connected and Unconnected Wire
15.2.4. Understanding the Brightness Comparator Circuit
15.2.5. Parts List for the Brightness Comparator Circuit
15.2.6. Building the Brightness Comparator Circuit
15.2.6.1. Having Fun with the LED Indicators and Light Sensors
15.2.6.2. Diagnosing Problems in the Brightness Comparator Circuit
15.2.6.2.1. Confirming Power Across the Board
15.2.6.2.2. Faking Input to the Comparator
15.3. Adding Headlights
15.3.1. Understanding the Headlight Circuit's Two LEDs
15.3.2. Building the Headlight Circuit
15.3.3. Repeating the Multiple LED Trick
15.3.3.1. Determining the Number of LEDs that the Battery Voltage Can Support
15.3.3.2. Calculating the Maximum Current Draw
15.4. Appreciating a Simple Mind
16. Transistor Switches
16.1. Defining Negative Power
16.1.1. Focusing on the 2907A Transistor
16.1.1.1. Pushing the 2907A's Button
16.1.1.2. Checking the Datasheet
16.1.1.3. Obtaining 2907A Transistors
16.2. Testing Bipolar Transistors with a Multimeter
16.2.1. Testing with a Multimeter that Has a Transistor Socket
16.2.1.1. Testing a Transistor When You Have the Datasheet
16.2.1.1.1. Understanding the Importance of Transistor Gain
16.2.1.1.2. Gain Varies from Transistor to Transistor
16.2.1.1.3. Switching Off and On Rather Than Amplifying
16.2.1.2. Testing a Transistor When You Don't Have the Datasheet
16.2.2. Testing with a Multimeter that Has a Diode Test
16.3. Bipolar Transistor Test Circuits
16.3.1. Examining the Schematic for the PNP Transistor Test Circuit
16.3.1.1. Dimming the LED for Reverse Connections
16.3.2. Building the PNP Transistor Test Circuit
16.3.2.1.
16.3.2.1.1. Correcting Problems with the PNP Transistor Test Circuit
16.3.2.1.2. Experimenting with the Functioning PNP Transistor Test Circuit
16.3.2.1.3. Gathering Data About the PNP Transistor
16.3.3. Examining the Schematic for the NPN Transistor Test Circuit
16.3.4. Building the NPN Transistor Test Circuit
16.4. Brightness Comparator Circuit with Transistors
16.4.1. Calculating Current-Limiting Transistors
16.4.1.1. Identifying Stresses Beyond Official Limitations
16.4.1.1.1. Taking Into Account the LM393's Worst-Case Minimum Limit
16.4.1.1.2. Looking Out for Heavy Current Through the Attached Circuit
16.4.2. Building the Brightness Comparator Circuit with Transistors
16.5. Summarizing PNP and NPN Transistors
17. DC Motors
17.1. How DC Motors Work
17.1.1. Looking Inside an Iron-Core Permanent-Magnet DC Brush Motor
17.1.1.1. Stator
17.1.1.2. Rotor
17.1.1.2.1. Rotor Windings
17.1.1.2.2. Rotor Shoes
17.1.1.2.3. Rotor Commutator
17.1.1.2.4. Rotor Brushes
17.1.2. Looking Inside an Iron-Core Permanent-Magnet DC Brushless Motor
17.1.2.1.
17.1.2.1.1. Living Longer Without Brushes
17.1.2.1.2. Switching with Brushless Circuitry
17.1.2.1.3. Limitations of Brushless Motors
17.1.3. Looking Inside a Coreless Permanent-Magnet DC Brush Motor
17.1.3.1. Comparing Coreless vs. Iron Core
17.2. Simple DC Motor Circuit
17.2.1. Selecting a Motor for the Simple DC Motor Circuit
17.2.2. Selecting a Battery for the Simple DC Motor Circuit
17.2.3. Building the Simple DC Motor Circuit
17.3. Primary Characteristics of DC Motors
17.3.1. Rotational Speed Characteristic of DC Motors
17.3.1.1. Measuring RPM
17.3.1.1.1. Mounting Putty Aids Motor Experimentation
17.3.1.2. Converting RPM to a Metric Unit
17.3.2. Torque Characteristic of DC Motors
17.3.2.1. The Significance of Distance in Torque
17.3.2.2. Sliding Torque
17.3.2.3. Calculating Torque Needed for a Robot
17.3.3. Voltage Characteristic of DC Motors
17.3.3.1. Understanding the Relationship Between Voltage and Speed
17.3.3.1.1. Watching Out for the Relationship Between Voltage and Speed
17.3.4. Current Characteristic of DC Motors
17.3.4.1. Examining Periods of Widely Changing Current Consumption
17.3.4.1.1. Start-Up Current
17.3.4.1.2. No-Load Current
17.3.4.1.3. Load Current
17.3.4.1.4. Stall Current
17.3.4.2. Planning for Current Consumption
17.3.5. Efficiency Characteristic of DC Motors
17.3.6. Audible Noise Characteristic of DC Motors
17.3.6.1.
17.3.6.1.1. Oiling the Rotor Shaft
17.3.7. Electrical Noise Characteristic of DC Motors
17.3.8. Mass Characteristic of DC Motors
17.3.9. Dimension Characteristic of DC Motors
17.3.10. Summarizing the Characteristics of DC Motors
17.4. DC Gearhead Motors
17.4.1. Looking Inside a Spur Gearhead Motor
17.4.1.1. Revealing Pairs of Smaller and Larger Gears
17.4.1.2. Gearbox Shaft
17.4.2. Describing Gear Ratios
17.4.2.1. Absolute Gear Ratio
17.4.2.2. Simplified Gear Ratio
17.4.2.3. Odd Gear Ratios
17.4.2.4. Indicating Both Absolute and Simplified Gear Ratios
17.4.2.5. Using a Colon
17.4.2.6. Looking at Real Gears
17.4.3. Imperfect Speed to Torque Conversion
17.4.4. Disadvantages of Gearheads
17.4.5. Comparing Planetary Versus Spur Gearhead Motors
17.4.6. Choosing a Gearhead Motor
17.5. Moving Forward
18. Adding Gearhead Motors
18.1. Selecting Gearhead Motors
18.1.1. Obtaining the Gearhead Motors
18.1.2. Inspecting the Gearhead Motor
18.1.2.1. Current Usage of the Gearhead Motor
18.1.2.1.1. Determining the Least Current (Best Case)
18.1.2.1.2. Determining the Most Current (Worst Case)
18.1.2.1.3. Determining the Actual Current (Average Case)
18.2. Adding Motors to the Brightness Comparator Circuit
18.2.1. Introducing the Diode
18.2.1.1. Protecting the Transistor with a Flyback Diode
18.2.1.2. Picking the Schottky Barrier Diode
18.2.1.3. Obtaining Schottky Barrier Diodes
18.2.2. Building the Motors onto the Brightness Comparator Circuit
18.2.2.1. Connecting the Diode in the Proper Orientation
18.2.2.2. Connecting the Motor
18.2.2.3. Repeating the Setup for the Other Transistor
18.2.2.4. Testing the Motors
18.3. Completing the Electronics
19. Wheels
19.1. Anatomy of a Wheel
19.2. Characteristics of Robot Wheels
19.2.1. Creamy Air Filling
19.2.1.1. Effects of Air
19.2.2. Tire Shapes
19.2.3. Tire Width
19.2.4. Tread Designs
19.2.5. Tire Diameter
19.2.5.1. Calculating Linear Speed
19.2.6. Selecting Robot Wheels
19.2.6.1. Reasons for Choosing LEGO Wheels
19.3. Wheel Choice for Sandwich
19.3.1. Determining Minimum and Maximum Diameter
19.3.2. Determining the Maximum Diameter Based on Speed
19.3.3. My Choice of Wheels for Sandwich
19.3.4. Alternative Choices of Wheels for Sandwich
19.3.4.1. Compensating for Larger Wheels with Lower Voltage Batteries
19.3.4.2. Obtaining New Alternative Wheels
19.4. Cleaning Tires
19.5. Rolling Along
20. Coupler
20.1. Alternatives
20.1.1. Making Couplers If You Have Metal-Working Equipment
20.2. Tubing
20.2.1. Choosing Between Brass and Aluminum Tubing
20.2.2. Specifying and Obtaining Tubing Sizes
20.2.2.1. Telescoping Tubing Required
20.2.2.2. Fitting the LEGO Cross Axle into a Tube
20.2.2.3. Fitting the Motor Shaft into a Tube
20.3. Measuring and Cutting the Tubing
20.3.1. Determining and Marking Tube Lengths
20.3.2. Cutting Tubing
20.3.2.1. Tube Cutter Tool
20.3.2.2. Variable-Speed Rotary Tool
20.3.2.2.1. Securing the Tubing in a Vise
20.3.2.2.2. Cutting the Tubing with a High-Speed Rotary Tool
20.3.3. Finishing the Cut by Sanding
20.3.4. Testing the Cut Pieces
20.4. LEGO Cross Axles
20.4.1. Selecting a LEGO Cross Axle Length
20.4.2. Obtaining LEGO Cross Axles
20.5. Gluing the Coupler Together
20.5.1. Coming Unglued
20.5.1.1. Notching the Cross Axle
20.5.2. Using Epoxy
20.5.2.1. Removing Extraneous Epoxy
20.6. Adding a Setscrew to the Coupler
20.6.1. Marking a Hole for the Setscrew
20.6.2. Drill Press
20.6.3. Drill-Press Vise
20.6.4. Drilling the Hole for the Setscrew
20.6.5. Tapping the Hole for the Setscrew
20.6.6. Inserting the Setscrew
20.7. Admiring the Coupler
21. Soldering Equipment
21.1. Solder Wire
21.2. Flux
21.3. Soldering Iron
21.4. Soldering Stand
21.5. Soldering Sponge
21.6. Helping-Hand Tool
21.7. Desoldering Vacuum Tools
21.8. Steps of a Typical Soldering Session
21.9. Get Ready to Solder
22. Soldering and Connecting
22.1. Putting Together the Motors and Switches
22.1.1. Putting Together the Motors
22.1.1.1. Preparing and Attaching the Motor Wires
22.1.1.2. Holding the Motor Firmly and Preparing the Soldering Iron
22.1.1.3. Soldering the Motors
22.1.1.3.1. In Soldering, Practice Makes Perfect
22.1.1.4. Protecting Soldered Joints with Heat-Shrink Tubing
22.1.1.4.1. Obtaining Heat-Shrink Tubing
22.1.1.4.2. Protecting the Motor Terminals with Heat-Shrink Tubing
22.1.1.5. Adding Connectors
22.1.1.5.1. Molex KK Connectors
22.1.1.5.2. Obtaining Molex KK Equipment
22.1.1.5.3. Attaching Molex KK Connectors to the Motors
22.1.2. Putting Together the Line-Following Switch
22.1.2.1. Obtaining the Line-Following Switch
22.1.2.2. Preparing and Attaching the Switch Wires
22.1.2.3. Soldering the Line-Following Switch
22.1.2.3.1. Reasoning Behind the Diagonal Cross Over
22.1.2.3.2. Finishing Soldering the Line-Following Switch
22.1.3. Putting Together the Tube LED Circuit
22.1.3.1. Examining the Tube LED Circuit Schematic
22.1.3.2. Building the Tube LED Circuit
22.1.4. Finishing Up
22.1.4.1. Obtaining the Power Switch
22.2. Soldering Experience
23. The Motherboard
23.1. The Line-Following Circuit
23.1.1. Tweaking For Better Performance
23.1.2. Point-to-Point Soldering Versus a Printed Circuit Board
23.1.3. Point-to-Point Soldering the Line-Following Circuit
23.1.3.1. Laying Out the Line-Following Circuit Components
23.1.3.1.1. Placing Components with a Helping Hand
23.1.3.1.2. Example Layout
23.1.3.1.3. Obtaining an IC Socket
23.1.3.2. Keeping the Components on the Board During Soldering
23.1.3.2.1. Gluing the Molex KK Headers to the Circuit Board
23.1.3.2.2. Bending Component Leads
23.1.3.3. Creating Power Distribution Buses
23.1.3.4. Soldering the Remaining Components
23.1.3.4.1. Soldering the Cadmium-Sulfide Photoresistors
23.1.3.5. Trimming Leads with Wire Snips
23.1.3.6. Cleaning the Board
23.2. Testing the Robot's Electronics
23.2.1. The Dangers of a Low-Resistance Circuit
23.2.2. Checking for Unsoldered Leads
23.2.3. Checking All Leads that Connect Directly to Positive Voltage
23.2.4. Measuring the Resistance of the Entire Circuit
23.2.4.1. Measuring the Power Off Resistance
23.2.4.2. Measuring the Power On Resistance
23.2.4.3. Measuring the Sensor Resistance
23.2.5. Measuring the Voltage Drop
23.2.6. Reheating Solder Joints
23.3. Holding Your Breath
24. Body Building
24.1. Approaching Robot Bodies
24.1.1. Ethereal Drafting—Thinking About the Robot
24.1.2. Vision Revision—Accepting Constraints Based on Available Parts
24.1.3. Designing Custom Bodies
24.1.3.1. Plastic Prototyping—Constructing Models with LEGO Bricks
24.1.3.2. Material Substitution—Transitioning Out LEGO Parts
24.1.3.3. Origami Helper—Bending Paper Before Bending Metal
24.1.4. Embracing Prefabricated Platforms
24.1.4.1. Commercially Available Robot Platforms
24.1.4.2. Converting and Recycling Everyday Items for Robot Bodies
24.2. Transforming the Sandwich Container
24.2.1. Creating Motor Holes
24.2.1.1. Marking and Determining Space Required By the Circuit Board
24.2.1.2. Creating a Template Sticker for the Motor Holes
24.2.1.3. Positioning the Template Stickers on the Container's Sides
24.2.1.4. Making Pilot Holes and Drilling Screw Holes
24.2.1.5. Introducing the Grinding Stone Accessory
24.2.2. Mounting the Motors
24.2.2.1. Obtaining Metric Screws
24.2.2.2. Needing Washers
24.2.3. Creating the Motor Tube
24.2.3.1. Obtaining the Motor Tube
24.2.3.2. Cutting the Motor Tube
24.2.3.3. Sanding the Motor Tube
24.2.3.4. Removing the Label Residue
24.2.3.5. Widening the Motor Diameters
24.2.4. Installing the Motors and Tube
24.2.5. Adding the Switches and Battery Holder
24.2.5.1. Installing the Power Switch
24.2.5.2. Installing the Line-Following Switch
24.2.5.3. Installing the 9 V Battery Holder
24.2.6. Adding the Circuit Board
24.2.6.1. Circuit Board Mounting Hardware
24.2.6.2. Selecting and Obtaining Spacers
24.2.6.3. Installing the Circuit Board
24.2.7. Drilling Holes for the Trimpots
24.2.8. Carving Out a Window in the Container Lid
24.2.9. Finishing Touches
24.3. Ready to Roll
25. Launching the Line-Follower
25.1. Correcting and Tweaking
25.1.1. Preliminary Examination
25.1.1.1. Checking the Power Supply
25.1.1.2. Checking the Sensors
25.1.1.3. Balancing the Sensors
25.1.1.4. Checking the Motors
25.1.1.5. Determining the Light and Dark Positions of the Line-Following Switch
25.1.2. Trial Run: Following a Straight Line
25.1.3. Correcting Common Problems
25.1.3.1. Line-Following Switch Toggled to Incorrect Position
25.1.3.2. Sensors Placed Too High or Too Low
25.1.3.3. Headlights Too Dim or Too Bright
25.1.3.4. Objectively Evaluating the Sensors and Headlights
25.1.3.4.1. Expected Voltages at the Sensor Test Points
25.1.3.4.2. Acceptable Ranges of Voltages at the Sensor Test Points
25.1.4. Does This Look Straight to You?
25.1.4.1. Following a Dark Line
25.1.4.2. Following a Light Line
25.2. The Maiden Voyage
25.2.1. Solving Steering Problems
25.2.1.1. Reducing Battery Voltage
25.2.1.2. Reducing Wheel Size
25.2.1.3. Modifying the Course
25.3. Potential Improvements
25.3.1. Protecting Against a Reversed Battery
25.3.2. Eliminating Surges with Capacitors
25.3.3. Improving Line-Following
25.3.3.1. Analyzing Cornering, Frame By Frame
25.3.3.1.1. Braking to Pivot
25.4. Final Bow
26. Encore
26.1. Robot Components
26.1.1. Logic Chips
26.1.1.1. Beyond the Golden Age of Logic Chips
26.1.2. Microcontrollers
26.1.2.1. Capabilities of Microcontrollers
26.1.2.2. Microcontroller Costs
26.1.2.3. Choosing a Microcontroller
26.1.3. Voltage Regulators
26.1.3.1. Voltage Regulator Packages
26.1.3.2. Voltage Regulator Types
26.1.3.3. Selection Criteria
26.1.4. Capacitors
26.1.4.1. Capacitor Roles
26.1.4.2. Capacitor Characteristics
26.1.5. Solar Power
26.1.5.1. BEAM Robots
26.1.6. Resistor Networks
26.1.7. Pushbuttons
26.1.8. DIP Switches
26.1.9. Jumpers and Shorting Blocks
26.1.10. Tilt Sensor
26.1.11. Temperature Sensors
26.1.12. Touch Sensors
26.1.13. Object Detection and Infrared Remote Control
26.1.14. Distance and Object Sensor
26.1.15. Oscillators and Crystals
26.1.16. Sound
26.1.17. Relays
26.1.18. Adding Gears
26.1.19. Servos
26.1.20. Encoders—Determining Wheel Speed
26.1.21. Displays
26.1.22. Wireless Data and Control
26.2. Everyday Challenges
26.2.1. Houseplant-Watering Robot
26.2.2. Compost Cart
26.2.3. Trash Emptier
26.2.4. Window Washer
26.2.5. Roof Rat
26.2.6. Micro Snowplow
26.2.7. Slug Squisher
26.2.8. Automatic Street mailbox
26.3. Contests
26.3.1. Worldwide Robot Sumo
26.3.2. Trinity College Fire-Fighting
26.3.3. Atlanta Robot Vacuuming
26.3.4. Seattle Robotics Society Robothon
26.3.5. Dallas Personal Robotics Group Roborama
26.3.6. Central Illinois Robotics Club
26.3.7. Chicago Area Robotics Group (Chibots)
26.4. The Great Wide Open
27. Appendix
27.1. Magical Ohm's Law
27.1.1. Ohm's Law is Helpful in Selecting a Current-Limiting Resistor
27.1.2. Help in Determining Current from a Voltage
27.1.2.1. Multimeter Voltage to Current Trick
27.1.3. The Key Point of Ohm's Law
27.1.4. The Larger Implication of Ohm's Law
27.2. Things I've Accidentally Destroyed While Writing This Book
27.2.1. Which Way Does a 9 V Battery Get Installed?
27.2.2. Melting Switches
27.2.3. Popping Multimeter Fuses
27.2.4. Fool Me, Twice
27.3. Voltage's Real Name
27.3.1. Ground, Not Negative Voltage
27.3.2. V Double Letter
27.3.2.1. Practical Example
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