Index
absorption, 279
absorption heat pumps, 280-2
absorption refrigeration, 9-10
active magnetic bearings, 166
adsorption heat pumps, 282-4
air pre-heater, 188
AMB See active magnetic bearings
anaerobic digestion, 104-5
anaerobic digestor, 511
APU See auxiliary power units
Aqueous Ammonia cycle, 9
auxiliary burner, 244
auxiliary power units, 336
baffles, 49
bagasse, 5
Baxi SenerTec Dachs, 473
bearings, 165-6
active magnetic bearings, 166
gas, 165-6
oil-lubricated, 165
Beddington Zero Energy Development, 448
BedZED See Beddington Zero Energy Development
beverage processing See food and beverage processing
Bio-energy Capital Grant Scheme, 428
biodiesel production, 105-7
bioenergy, 89
biofuel, 89
biogas-driven small CHP system in sewage works, 60-8
choice of prime mover, 61-3
CHP system flow diagram, 63
engine performance, 63-4
efficiency and heat rejection, 64
Sankey diagram for a single generation scheme, 65
exhaust heat recovery, 66
economiser performance, 66
heat recovery system, 64-6
compact heat exchanger performance, 66
overall system performance, 66-7
emissions reduction per generator, 67
Sankey diagram for cogeneration scheme, 67
categories, 89-91
non-woody biomass, 90
organic waste biomass, 90-1
woody biomass, 89-90
combined heat and power technologies, 108-16
combustion-based, 108-14
gasification-based, 114-15
illustration, 108
other, 116
combustion and prime mover, 109-14
biomass-fired hot air gas turbine process, 114
biomass-fired micro-scale CHP system with ORC, 111
hot air gas turbine, 113-14
ORC-based biomass CHP plant of Lienz, 110
organic Rankine cycle turbine, 109-12
small-scale biomass Stirling engine CHP of BIOS, 113
steam turbine/steam engine, 108-9
Stirling engine, 112-13
conversion technologies, 94-107
anaerobic digestion, 104-5
basic steps in anaerobic digestion process, 105
basic steps of biomass fermentation, 102
biodiesel production, 105-7
biomass thermochemical conversion processes, 99
conversion processes, 95-6
fermentation to produce ethanol, 102-4
gasification, 98-100
pathways of biomass pyrolysis, 101
pyrolysis, 100-2
current development of small and micro CHP, 107-16
fuels for small and micro combined heat and power systems, 88-116
renewable energy resource, 89-91
illustration, 90
50 kW wood pellet boiler, 97
Arimax Bio Energy boiler, 98
average net calorific value, 94
combustion, 96-8
combustion stages, 96
formulae for calculation of results to different bases, 95
moisture content effect on biomass fuel net calorific value, 94
proximate, ultimate analyses and gross calorific values, 95
proximate analysis, 92
ultimate analysis, 92-3
world energy supply, 91
application and status in UK, 427-56
technical changes, 450-2
UK energy policy and targets, 427-9
capital costs, 452-5
European policy, 453-4
novel biomass CHP technology in Austria, 454
small-scale biomass CHP in Europe, 453
small-scale biomass CHP in Sweden, Denmark and Finland, 454-5
small-scale biomass combustion CHP, 452
small-scale biomass gasification CHP, 452
small-scale biomass pyrolysis CHP, 452
technological characteristics from small scale CHP production, 453
difficulties associated with biomass fuels, 450-1
biodiversity and land use, 450
energy efficiency, energy balance and carbon neutrality, 450
food shortages, 450
supply and security of supply issues, 451
difficulties associated with prime movers, 451-2
IC engines, 451
turbines, 451-2
past and present small-scale biomass gasification companies, 447-9
Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED), 448
Biomass CHP, 447-8
Biomass Engineering, 447
Blackwater Valley Museum, Benburb, 448
Boughton Pumping Station, 449
Brook Hall Estate, Londonderry, N. Ireland, 448
ECOS Millennium Centre, Ballymena, N. Ireland, 447
Little Woolden Hall Farm, Culcheth, Cheshire, 447
Mossborouh Hall, Merseyside, 447
Rural Generation Ltd, 448-9
pyrolysis + gasification examples, 449-50
Compact Power, 449
Harper Adams University College, 449-50
Talbott's Biomass Energy System, 449-50
renewables and combined heat and power in the UK, 429-50
biomass-based CHP plants in the UK, 437-43
biomass derived fuels used for heat generation, 433
biomass electricity projects, 431-2
biomass heat generation, 433-4
CHP in UK, 434-6
CHP schemes installed in buildings by sector (2008), 435
electricity generation from biomass, 430
fuel input for CHP (2008), 435
increase in CHP generation from renewables, 436
renewable CHP generation, 436-46
renewables and biomass electricity generation, 430-3
arranged by feedstock, 445
arranged by prime mover, 444
arranged by size, 444
arranged by technology, 445
Biomass Energy Centre, 434
biomass fermentation, 102-4
thermochemical conversion processes, 99
Biomass Implementation Advisory Group, 428
biomass pyrolysis, 100-2
fast pyrolysis, 101-2
pathways, 101
slow pyrolysis, 100
Biomass Task Force Report, 428
boiler station, 354
bottoming cycle, 405
bowl-in-piston combustion chamber designs, 133
Brazil's PRO ALCOOL programme, 102
BS EN 14775:2009, 92
BS EN 14918:2009, 93
BS EN 15148:2009, 92
BS EN 14774-1:2009, 92
BS EN 14774-2:2009, 92
BS EN 14774-3:2009, 92
BS EN 14778-1:2005, 92
Building Regulations (2006), 428
CAES See compressed air energy storage
capacitors, 309
capacity ratio, 51
Capstone Inc., 172
central performance metric, 26
emissions reduction performance, 35-8
CO2 reductions to prime mover capacity, 36
Carbon Reduction Commitment (CRC), 391
Carbon Trust, 428
Carnot COP, 286-9
Carnot cycle, 465
Carnot's principle, 186
Casten, T., 4
CCHP See combined cooling, heat and power
CEN/TS 15104:2005, 93
CEN/TS 15289:2006, 93
CEN/TS 15290:2006, 93
CEN/TS 15296:2006, 94
CEN/TS 15297:2006, 93
Central Electricity Generating Board, 4
CFD See computational fluid dynamics
choking, 168
CHP See combined heat and power
CHP systems See combined heat and power systems
clean wood, 446
Cleanergy AB, 198
cogeneration See combined heat and power
cogeneration plant, 46-7
combined cooling, heat and power, 266
combined heat and power, 427
grid services applications, 317-18
systems applications, 315-17
costs of storage, 317
domestic scale, 316
economic scale, 316-17
establishment scale, 315-16
applications in fuel cell systems, 233-56
commercial development and future trends, 253-6
fuel cell systems, 239-46
fundamentals of operation, types and properties of fuel cells, 234-8
operating conditions and performance, 246-53
barriers, 15-16
biomass fuels, 88-116
biomass conversion technologies, 94-107
current development, 107-16
solid biomass fuels characterisation, 91-4
cogeneration, 3-5
commercial exploitation pathways, 24-5
community microgrid, 24
company control, 24
plug-and-play, 24
conclusion and outlook, 512-13
cost benefit and emissions reduction, 12-13
district and community heating aspects, 347-63
Aars, Denmark case study, 360-2
control system and consumer installations, 353-9
future trends, 363
heat sources, 349-51
Lerwick, Shetland case study, 359-60
pipework installation issues and design considerations, 351-3
preconditions, 348-9
energy efficiency improvement, 11-12
energy storage, 307-22
applications, 315-17
electrical energy storage application, 309-15
electrical vehicles, 318
energy management applications, 307-8
future trends, 321-2
grid services applications and relationship, 317-18
islanding capability applications, 308
large-scale and small-scale storage - conceptual planning, 318
power trading, 308
thermal storage development and application, 318-21
types of systems, 308-9
food and beverage processing industries, 395-421
established CHP technologies for food industry, 404-6
food processing and energy requirements, 396-7
future trends, 419-21
high-efficiency technologies, 406-11
integration of renewables and waste, 411-14
potential applications, 414-19
future trends, 16
grid connection, 13-15
harmonics, 15
inverters, 15
protection, 13-14
synchronisation, 14
system fault level analysis, 14-15
heat-activated cooling technologies, 262-306
advantages and limitations of heat-activated cooling, 296-7
closed sorption cycles, 279-84
component-specific efficiency and effectiveness metrics, 285-90
cooling systems and their applications, 267-9
future trends, 297-9
open sorption cycles, 269-79
small-scale trigeneration, 263-7
steam ejector cycle, 284-5
system-wide performance and efficiency metrics, 290-6
integration into distributed energy systems, 70-86
conditions for profitable decentralised generation, 75-8
distributed energy resources, 70-3
distributed generation value, 73-5
evaluating the 'full value' of being network connected, 78-81
recommendations to distribution system operators and regulators, 81-6
internal combustion engine technology and application, 125-45
commercially available units, 140-5
installation and practical aspects, 138-40
operating characteristics and performance, 133-7
types, properties and design, 126-33
review of micro combined heat and power system, 510-11
review of small combined heat and power system, 511-12
Stirling engine applications, 179-205
applications and future trends, 203-5
definition, 180-1
development for micro CHP applications, 189-98
micro CHP design and system integration, 199-203
Stirling cycle, 183-8
suited to micro CHP, 181-3
types, 188-9
techno-economic assessment, 17-41
case study: micro CHP, 28-39
economics, 18-21
future trends, 39-41
modelling methodology, 23-8
onsite generation, 21-3
thermal-engine-based, 459-508
deployed prime movers, 460-70
economic and environmental analysis, 500-8
economical and environmental benefits estimation, 480-3
electrical demand, 490-2
heat demand modelling, 483-90
performance mapping, 492-500
thermodynamics, performance analysis and computational modelling, 42-68
analysis of computational modelling, 55-60
case study: biogas-driven small CHP system in sewage works, 60-8
cogeneration thermodynamics, 44-7
computational modelling, 54-5
heat exchangers theory, 48-51
performance analysis of cogeneration cycles, 48
temperature-entropy chart, 52
types of systems, 43-4
worked sample, 51-4
types of technology and potential applications, 5-11
base technologies, 6
large-scale CHP, 7-8
micro-CHP, 10-11
small-scale CHP, 8-9
trigeneration, 9-10 see also specific type of CHP system
Community Energy Programme, 455
Community Energy Storage, 321-2
community heating, 341-3
Community Power Corporation, 115
competitive locational price, 74
system diagram, 315
compression heat pump, 412
compression ignition engines, 132-3
compression ratio, 465
compression stroke, 133
computational fluid dynamics, 160
CHP, 54-5
analysis, 55-60
extraction ratio efficiency influence on CHP performance, 60
maximum boiler pressure influence on CHP performance, 61
process heat extraction pressure influence on CHP performance, 62
pump efficiency influence on CHP performance, 58
simulation results vs manual calculations, 56
superheat temperature influence on CHP performance, 57
system flow diagram, 63
turbine efficiency influence on CHP performance, 59
variable 1: superheat temperature, 56
variable 2: pump efficiency, 56
variable 3: turbine efficiency, 56-7
variable 4: extraction ratio, 57-8
variable 5: maximum pressure - boiler, 58-9
variable 6: heat extraction pressure - process heat, 59
condensing connections, 230
conventional central plant, 343-4
COP See Coefficient of Performance
correction factor, 49
Cost Optimisation of Decentralised Energy Generation, 23-8
inputs, outputs and flow diagram for optimisation, 23
CPC See Community Power Corporation
customer billing system, 358-9
dead volume, 185
DEC See display energy certificates
decentralised/distributed generation concept, 20
characteristics, 20-1
defence plans, 72
DER See distributed energy resources
desiccant dehumidification, 269-79
effectiveness, 289-90
configuration options, 274
DG See distributed generation
Diesel dilemma, 133
direct combustion, 96
direct heating, 341-3
direct hot air microturbine, 452
Directive on the Promotion of Cogeneration base on Useful Heat Demand, 453
Disenco kinematic Stirling engine, 194-8
Sigma 3 kWe micro-CHP unit, 197
display energy certificates, 366
distributed energy resources, 70-3
initial developments in power systems, 70-2
supply reliability, 72-3
conditions for profitable decentralised generation, 75-8
distributed energy resources, 70-3
initial developments in power systems, 70-2
supply reliability, 72-3
distributed generation value, 73-5
market regulation, 75
technical aspects, 73-4
value for the system, 74
evaluating the 'full value' of being network connected, 78-81
evaluated for islanded sites, 80
evaluated for small customer islanded sites, 81
vs full load working hours, 78
operators and regulators, 81-6
new designs for distribution networks, 82-5
new regulatory frameworks, 85-6
small and micro combined heat and power systems integration, 70-86
distributed generation, 71
value, 73-5
distribution system operators, 73
district heating, 512
Aars, Denmark case study, 360-2
Energy from Waste plant in Aars, 361
transmission pipe between Aars and Hornum, 362
combined heat and power systems, 347-63
Lerwick, Shetland case study, 359-60
preconditions, 348-9
control system and consumer installations, 353-9
boiler station with a CHP unit as the base unit, 354
boiler station with a heat storage tank, 354
customer billing system, 358-9
heat storage in Aars, 357
heat storage tank, 356-7
pressurising and static pressure, 353-6
standard consumer installation, 355
water quality in the network, 357
flow temperature, 358
hot tap water, 358
space heating, 358
future trends, 363
balancing of the electric grid, 363
conversion from gas to district heating, 363
pipe dimensioning, 363
temperature optimisation, 363
heat sources, 349-51
biogas, 350
biomass, 350
fossil fuel, 350-1
size considerations, 349-50
waste to energy, 350
pipework installation issues and design considerations, 351-3
consumer education, 352-3
pipe size considerations, 352
DSO See distribution system operators
E-ON, 475
techno-economic assessment, 18-21
onsite generation, 21-3
UK electricity and gas price plotted vs CHP spark spread, 19
ECOWILL micro-CHP unit, 473
ECU See electronic control unit
Efficient Home EnergyS1, 475-6
EFMT See externally-fired microturbines
EFW See Energy from Waste plant
electric efficiency, 155
electrical vehicles, 318
electricity generation, 327
electricity grid connection, 13-15
electricity-led operation, 139
electrolysers, 309
electronic control unit, 136
Emissions Trading Schemes, 429
energy crops, 89
energy efficiency improvement, 11-12
Energy from Waste plant, 360
energy management, 307-8
energy performance certificates, 366
Energy Performance of Buildings Directive, 365-6
energy service company, 25
central performance metric, 25-6
combined heat and power systems applications, 315-17
costs of storage, 317
domestic scale, 316
economic scale, 316-17
establishment scale, 315-16
electrical energy storage application, 309-15
50 kW demonstration flywheel, 314
Beacon's 20 MW flywheel under construction, 313
CAES Plant, 314
CAES system diagram, 315
mechanical systems, 312-15
technologies for integration with CHP systems, 312
uninterruptible power supply, 309-12
electrical vehicles, 318
vanadium battery, 319
future trends, 321-2
community energy storage, 321
small and micro CHP systems, 307-22
energy management applications, 307-8
energy storage, 307-21
grid services applications and relationship, 317-18
islanding capability applications, 308
large-scale and small-scale storage - conceptual planning, 318
power trading, 308
thermal storage development and application, 318-21
parabolic trough collectors and experimental solid media storage unit, 320
definition and scope, 308
energy storage devices development status, 310-11
Energy White Paper, 427
engine efficiency, 134
engine knock, 130
ESCO See energy service company
ETS See Emissions Trading Schemes
externally-fired microturbines, 174-5
flow diagram, 174
extraction ratio, 57-8
influence on CHP performance, 60
Faber, O., 4
FCP See fuel chargeable to power
fit-and-forget principle, 83
fixed carbon, 92
flameless oxidation, 198
FLOX See flameless oxidation
food and beverage processing, 395
energy requirements, 396-7
agricultural crops processing, 397
meat processing, 397
sugar production, 396
established CHP technologies, 404-6
gas turbine-based CHP, 405
Rankine cycle technologies, 404-5
reciprocating engines, 406
basic heat integration, 398-9
heat recovery targeting, 399
locally integrated energy sector CHP, 401
total site profiles and composite curves, 400
future trends, 419-21
decentralisation, 420
further integration of renewables and maximum waste utilisation, 421
locally integrated energy sectors, 421
strategic issues, 420-1
technology development trends, 420
high-efficiency technologies in theoretical and demonstration stages, 406-11
fuel cell combined cycles, 409-11
fuel cell efficiency variation with operating temperature, 407
molten-carbonate fuel cells, 407-9
overall efficiencies of combined SOFC and steam system arrangement, 411
simple MCFC process flow diagram, 408
potential applications, 414-19
locally integrated energy sectors, 414-19
MCFC in a Japanese brewery, 414
renewables and waste integration with food industry energy demands, 411-14
biomass, 412-13
heat pumps, 412
using solar energy, 413-14
small and micro CHP systems applications, 395-421
annual microCHP CO2 savings, 402
CHP using microturbines, 403
external combustion-Stirling engines, 403-4
fuel cells, 404
internal combustion-reciprocating engines, 402-3
free-piston Stirling engine, 470
Freewatt, 473
fuel cell combined cycles, 409-11
fuel cell systems, 239-46
auxiliary burner, 244
commercial development and future trends, 253-6
current and future costs, 254-6
expectations and targets given by manufacturers and government bodies, 256
known sale prices, 255
major manufacturers, products and demonstrations, 253-4
control system, 245
dynamic operation effects, 247-51
on/off cycling and start-up, 250-1
utilisation of generated energy, 251
whole system electrical and thermal efficiency, 249
fuel cell stack, 239-40
stationary fuel cell CHP system, 239
fuel cells, 234-8
fundamentals of operation, 234-6
materials of PEFCs and SOFCs, 237-8
operating characteristics, 238
operating range, 235
operation, 234
types of stack, 237
fuel processor, 240-2
fuel processing, 241
heat management, 243
heat storage, 243-4
installed system, 245-6
inverter and power electronics, 244-5
operating conditions and performance, 246-53
conversion efficiency, 246-7
demonstrated stack and system lifetimes, 252
overall efficiency, 248
reliability, availability and lifetime, 251-3
thermal and electrical efficiency, 246
reactant delivery systems, 242-3
small and micro combined heat and power applications, 233-56
water management, 243
fuel chargeable to power, 293-4
fuel processor, 240-2
fuel utilisation efficiency, 293
fuel utilisation factor, 292
gas engines, 403
gas turbine/generator, 512
gasification product, 413
gasification system, 412
GCV See gross calorific value
Genlec Energetix Ltd, 471
Grenoble synchronous machine, 80
Grenoble UPS, 80
gross calorific value, 93
GWP See global warming potential
HACD See heat-activated cooling device
HACT See heat-activated cooling technologies
harmonic distortion, 15
health care buildings, 382-4
heat, 42
heat-activated cooling device, 266
closed sorption cycles, 279-84
absorption heat pump cycle, 281
absorption heat pumps, 280-2
adsorption heat pump schematic, 283
adsorption heat pumps, 282-4
Dühring diagram for water on silica gel 3A, 283
component-specific efficiency and effectiveness metrics, 285-90
desiccant dehumidification effectiveness, 289-90
thermal coefficient of performance and Carnot COP, 286-9
thermal COP vs regeneration temperature for various HACT, 287
open sorption cycles, 269-79
airside psychrometric state points for basic desiccant wheel, 271
airside psychrometric state points for dehumidification processes, 270
desiccant wheel schematic, 271
enhanced desiccant wheel, 275
equilibrium isotherm for aqueous LiCl, 278
liquid desiccant dehumidification system, 278
liquid desiccant processes, 277-8
qualitative equilibrium isotherms, 272
representative average air side state points for enhanced desiccant wheel, 275
solid desiccant cycles, 271-6
system integration options, 279
small and micro combined heat and power systems, 262-306
advantages and limitations, 296-7
cooling systems and their applications, 267-9
future trends, 297-9
sorption processes, 269
small-scale trigeneration, 263-7
cooling technologies and applications, 265-7
energy flow schematic of a generic CCHP (trigeneration) system, 267
generic CHP (cogeneration) system, 266
heat recovery circuitry options and trade-offs, 266
matrix connecting cooling cycles with applications, 268
prime movers, 264-5
small-scale CHP prime movers, 265
steam ejector cycle, 284-5
ejector cycle schematic, 285
ejector with fluid velocity profiles, 285
system-wide performance and efficiency metrics, 290-6
comparative performance relative to baseline systems, 295-6
energy content of fuel, 291
fuel utilisation rate and fuel-chargeable to power efficiency, 294
system-wide metrics, 292-4
zero-order model baseline non-CHP system with VCC cooling device and fuel-fired water heater, 295
CCHP system with absorption chiller, 296
CCHP system with desiccant wheel and VCC, 295
heat engine types, 370-4
gas turbines, 372-3
micro-gas turbines, 373-4
reciprocating internal combustion, 370-2
heat exchanger network, 398
heat exchangers, 163-4
heat exchangers theory, 48-51
cross-flow heat exchanger and typical temperature profile, 49
logarithmic mean temperature difference, 49
modified logarithmic mean temperature difference, 49-50
number of transfer units-effectiveness method, 50-1
capacity ratio, 51
effectiveness, 50
NTU, 50
heat extraction pressure - process heat, 59
influence on CHP performance, 62
heat-led mode, 139
heat-led operation, 139
heat management, 243
heat pumps, 412
heat recovery pinch, 398
heat sources, 350-1
heat storage, 243-4
heat storage tank, 356-7
HEN See heat exchanger network
HFE See hydrofluoroethers
high heating values, 93
higher education institutions, 378-82
homes market, 332-6
micro combined heat and power systems, 332-6
scope, 334
Honda CB1000R, 129
Honda Ecowill/Freewatt, 145
hospitals, 383-4
hot tap water, 358
Hot 2XP, 484-5
HPR See heat-to-power ratio
HRe boilers, 479-80
hydrofluoroethers, 112
hypermarkets, 385-6
IAPWS-IF97 See IAPWS Industrial Formulation 1997 for the Thermodynamic Properties of Water and Steam
IAPWS Industrial Formulation 1997 for the Thermodynamic Properties of Water and Steam, 55
ICE See internal combustion engines
indicated power of machine, 465
industrial cogeneration, 44
Ariston 1 kWe micro-CHP unit, 196
integrated gasification combined cycle, 115
commercially available units, 140-5
Honda Ecowill/Freewatt, 145
installation and practical aspects, 138-40
electrical connection, 138
maintenance, reliability and availability, 140
operational control, 139
micro combined heat and power, 473-4
operating characteristics and performance, 133-7
common internal combustion engine based CHP system configuration, 135
energy balance, efficiency and heat recovery, 134-6
energy balance in internal combustion engine based CHP system, 136
operational optimisation and load control, 136-7
performance map for a spark ignition engine, 137
PowerPlus Technologies ecopower, 143-4
CHP unit performance data, 144
ecopower micro-CHP unit design and operational data, 143
SenerTec Dachs, 140-3
micro-CHP technical data, 142
micro-CHP unit, 141
specific aspects, 130-3
compression ignition engines, 132-3
spark ignition engines, 130-2
technology and application in small and micro CHP systems, 125-45
types, properties and design, 126-33
basic design considerations, 128-30
common designs, 127
ideal Otto cycle efficiency and typical fuel efficiencies, 129
inverters, 15
isentropic efficiency, 55
islanding capability, 308
large combined heat and power system, 7-8
large office buildings, 377-8
leisure and recreation buildings, 384
LHV See low heating value
LIES See locally integrated energy sector
Lion Powerblock unit, 471
liquid desiccant processes, 277-8
liquid desiccant dehumidification system, 278
liquid desiccant solutions, 277-8
process grand composite, 417
process stream data, 416
process grand composite, 415
process stream data, 415
process grand composite, 416
process stream data, 415
grand composite curve, 418
process stream data, 417
site profiles, 418
scenario 1, 419
scenario 2, 419
logarithmic mean temperature difference, 49
modified, 49-50
lubrication, 466
Magic Boiler Company, 190
maximum pressure - boiler, 58-9
influence on CHP performance, 61
MCFC See molten carbonate fuel cell
MEC LFPSE See Microgen linear free piston Stirling engine
micro combined heat and power system review, 510-11
micro combined heat and power systems, 436
basic issues and energy requirements, 326-9
economic rationale, 326-8
electricity generation, 327
fuel availability, 328
regulatory environment, 328
technical requirements for viability, 328-9
case study, 28-39
characteristics of commercially successful micro CHP, 38-9
CO2 emissions reduction performance, 35-8
CO2 reductions to prime mover capacity, 36
economic results variation of two key micro CHP technologies to annual electricity demand in target dwelling, 30
economic results variation of two key micro CHP technologies to annual thermal demand in target dwelling, 29
sensitivity of economic result to maximum ramp rate for 4 micro-CHP technologies, 34
sensitivity of economic result to minimum operating point for 4 micro-CHP technologies, 35
sensitivity of micro-CHP system value to prime mover capacity, 32
techno-economic assessment for investors and policy makers, 29-31
techno-economic assessment for technology developers, 31-5
competing technology solutions, 341-4
annual CO2 emissions for micro-CHP and CH/CHP, 342
community heating, 341-3
conventional central plant, 343-4
efficiencies of micro-CHP and conventional options, 343
other microgeneration technologies, 343
deployment modelling, 459-508
domestic applications, 331-6
complementary applications in housing, 332
domestic energy consumption by end use, 333
existing homes market, 332-6
new-build housing market, 336
UK gas consumers by consumption, 335
residential and small commercial systems, 325-45
advantages and limitations, 341-4
future trends, 344-5
small commercial buildings and other potential applications, 336-40
emergency service buildings, 339
hotel, 338
laundrettes, hairdressers, and similar premises, 339
multiple EC power 15 kWe ICE units, 340
offices, 339
preferred technologies, 337
residential and nursing homes, 338
restaurants and pubs, 338-9
small schools, 339
types of system for residential and small commercial buildings, 329-31
external combustion engines, 329-30
fuel cells, 331
internal combustion engines, 330-1
other novel technologies, 331
micro-gas turbines, 373-4
Micro Turbine Technology, 176
Baxi Ecogen 1 kWe micro-CHP unit, 195
cross section through the upper cylinder, 193
Microgen MCHP unit, 476
microgeneration, 428
components types and properties, 160-6
axial turbine, 163
bearings, 165-6
centrifugal compressor, 161
combustors, 165
compressors, 160-1
heat exchangers, 163-4
radial turbine, 162
turbines, 161-3
variable frequency drive, 166
cycle performance, 152-9
compressor pressure ratio effect, 157
main input values in the simulation, 157
T-s and flow diagram of Brayton cycle and actual recuperated cycle, 154
future trends, 174-6
externally-fired microturbines, 174-5
flow diagram of externally-fired microturbines, 174
fuel cells and microturbines, 175-6
gas turbine integrated to a fuel cell, 175
gas turbine and recuperative cycle flow diagram, 148
efficiencies, 149
power and efficiency, 150
general challenges with microturbine scale, 149-52
efficiency, 151-2
microturbine power output effect on compressor and turbine efficiency, 152
single stage compressors efficiency values, 151
speed, 150-1
volume, 150
manufacturers and applications, 172-4
Capstone, 173
Capstone microturbine, 173
Turbec, 173-4
operation, 166-72
ambient conditions effect, 168-70
ambient temperature effect on power output and electric efficiency, 169
compressor and turbine characteristics, 167
control methods, 170
electric load effect on electric efficiency and heat output, 171
emissions, 170-1
operating point determination, 166-8
other operational viewpoints, 171-2
single parameter change effect on operating point, 169
small combined heat and power applications, 147-76
microturbines, 403
modelling methodology, 23-8
central performance metric, 23-6
CHP commercial exploitation pathways, 24-5
CO2 performance, 26
inputs, outputs and flow diagram for optimisation, 23
optimisation problem, 26-8
Modular Bioenergy Company, 115
applied to a Japanese brewery, 414
composite curves for MCFC, 410
simple MCFC process flow diagram, 408
multi-energy chiller, 10
net calorific value, 93
NETA See New Electricity Trading Arrangements
new-build housing market, 336
New Electricity Trading Arrangements, 390
non-woody biomass, 90
NTU See number of transfer units
number of transfer units, 50-1
ODP See ozone depletion potential
open cycle, 153
optimisation, 26-8
constraints, 27
decision variables, 27
optimisation models, 22
ORC See organic Rankine cycle
ORC-based biomass CHP plant, 109-12
biomass-fired micro-scale CHP system with ORC, 111
illustration, 110
ORC process efficiency, 230
commercial development and exploitation, 223-30
GMK ORC plant connected to diesel engine, 226
GMK ORC power conversion module, 226
historical review of early development stages (1960-1984), 223
ORC power conversion module from Tri-O-Gen, 228
Ormat ORC plant producing electricity, 227
plants built between 1960 and 1984, 224-5
power conversion module of typical Turboden ORC plant, 229
process diagram, 229
schematic of Turboden power conversion module, 230
Tri-O-Gen B.V., Goor, The Netherlands, 228-9
Turboden S.r.l., Brescia, Italy, 229-30
generator, gearbox, recuperator and condenser, 209
working principle, 208
efficiency and typical costs for current ORC plants, 230-1
large size plants disadvantages, 219
good dielectric properties, 219
low enthalpy drop in turbine, 217-19
process comparison in temperature-total enthalpy diagram, 218
simplified ORC process in temperature-entropy diagram, 217
(145 kW) run with exhaust gas, 211
(150 kW) run with unclean landfill gas, 212
(500 kWe) heat source are hot gasses collected with pipes, 211
process system alternatives, 221-2
small CHP applications, 206-31
typical process heat sources and operating ranges, 207-13
biogas from industrial and municipal waste streams, 212
electricity production and district heat from biomass, 214
micro-ORC plant principle for special applications, 216
ORC principle using geothermal heat, 215
present-day industrial waste heat sources, and economical feasibility, 210
working fluid selection, 219-21
dry or wet expansion, 221
environmental aspects, 220-1
pressure in condenser, 220
thermal stability, 219-20
volumetric flow, 220
working fluids properties used in present day plants, 221
organic Rankine cycle machines, 460-3
organic waste biomass, 90-1
Otto engines, 126
PAFC See phosphoric acid fuel cell
PEFC See polymer electrolyte fuel cells
PEMFC See proton exchange membrane fuel cell
phosphoric acid fuel cell, 404
photovoltaic, 80
PHR See power-to-heat-ratios
pipework installation, 351-3
power generation, 70-1
power plant, 71
power stroke, 185
power-to-heat-ratios, 403
power trading, 308
PowerPlus Technologies ecopower, 143-4
CHP unit performance data, 144
ecopower micro-CHP unit design and operational data, 143
pressure-reducing valve, 47
process heat, 46
proton exchange membrane fuel cell, 404
pump efficiency, 56
influence on CHP performance, 58
radial compressor, 160
radial turbines, 162
Rankine cycle machines, 460-3
Rankine cycle micro combined heat and power, 471-3
Rankine cycle technologies, 404-5
reciprocating internal combustion, 370-2
recuperator, 163-4
renewable energy, 429
renewable energy certificates, 389-90
renewable energy source and combined heat and power solution, 81
Renewable Heat Incentive scheme, 392
Renewable Obligation, 429
Reynolds number, 152
RHI See Renewable Heat Incentive scheme
rhombic drive, 469
ROC See renewable energy certificates
rotary screw engine, 462-3
Rural Generation Ltd, 448-9
Sanevo, 190
Sankey diagram, 64
cogeneration scheme, 67
single generation scheme, 65
Second Law of Thermodynamics, 292
SenerTec Dachs, 140-3
micro-CHP technical data, 142
micro-CHP unit, 141
simulation models, 22
small combined heat and power system review, 511-12
small combined heat and power systems, 8-9
application in buildings, 377-86
breakdown of energy consumption in UK supermarkets, 385
cooling trigeneration system at Edinburgh University, 381
health care buildings, 382-4
higher education institutions, 378-82
hospitals, 383-4
large office buildings, 377-8
leisure and recreation buildings, 384
supermarkets, 386
supermarkets and hypermarkets, 385-6
university campuses, 379
commercial buildings and institutions, 365-92
basic issues and energy requirements, 366-8
energy use in commercial sector by building type, 367
energy use in non-domestic buildings, 366
future trends, 390-2
merits and limitations, 389-90
number and capacity of CHP installations in the building sector, 369
microturbine systems, 147-76
components types and properties, 160-6
cycle performance, 152-9
future trends, 174-6
manufacturers and applications, 172-4
operation, 166-72
organic Rankine cycle systems applications, 206-31
benefits and disadvantages vs water-based systems, 213-19
commercial development and exploitation, 223-30
efficiency and typical costs for current ORC plants, 230-1
process principle, 206-7
process system alternatives, 221-2
typical process heat sources and operating ranges, 207-13
working fluid selection, 219-21
performance analysis and optimisation, 386-9
base electricity load supply operation mode, 387
base heat load supply operation mode, 387
cost-led operation strategy, 387-8
system performance indicators, 388-9
small-scale technology, 369-77
electrical connection, 376
energy balance, 370
gas-fired micro-gas turbine CHP system, 373
heat engine types, 370-4
heat engines types and properties, 374
heating circuit interface with building services, 375
integration into building services, 374-7
internal combustion gas engine, 372
small-scale biomass CHP, 453
small-scale biomass combustion CHP, 452
small-scale biomass gasification CHP, 452
small-scale biomass pyrolysis CHP, 452
SOFC See solid oxide fuel cells
solar energy, 413
average net calorific value, 94
formulae for calculation of results to different bases, 95
moisture content effect on biomass fuel net calorific value, 94
proximate, ultimate analyses and gross calorific values, 95
proximate analysis, 92
ultimate analysis, 92-3
combustion, 96-8
50 kW wood pellet boiler, 97
Arimax Bio Energy boiler, 98
stages, 96
solid desiccant cycles, 271-6
basic cycle, 274
cycle enhancements, 274-6
desiccant wheel configuration options, 274
solid desiccant materials and substrates, 272-3
flowsheet, 410
integration composite curves, 411
overall efficiencies of combined SOFC and steam system arrangement, 411
SOLO V161 Stirling CHP system, 480
solvent refined coal, 446
specific steam consumption, 48
squish, 133
SRC See solvent refined coal
steam ejector cycle, 284-5
steam engine, 453
steam tables, 52-3
steam-turbine cogeneration plant, 47
Stirling conversion, 76
Stirling cycle, 510
Baxi Cogen MCHP unit, 478
Enatec MCHP unit, 479
free-piston Stirling engine from Microgen, 478
free-piston Stirling engine in Enatec MCHP unit, 479
V-type SOLO V-161 Stirling engine, 481
Whispergen Mk 5 MCHP unit, 474
'wobble-yoke' drive mechanism in Whispergen, 475
alpha engine, 467
applications and future trends, 203-5
beta-type engine, 467-9
definition, 180-1
design arrangement and pressure-volume diagrams, 465
development for micro CHP applications, 189-98
Ariston 1 kWe micro-CHP unit, 196
Baxi Ecogen 1 kWe micro-CHP unit, 195
Cleanergy AB, 198
Disenco kinematic Stirling engine, 194-8
Sigma 3 kWe micro-CHP unit, 197
Sunmachine, 198
WhisperGen kinematic Stirling engine, 190-2
double-acting 4-cylinder engine, 468
gamma configuration engine, 469
beta-type engine, 468
free-piston engine, 470
layouts of modern Stirling engines, 467-70
micro CHP design and system integration, 199-203
design for thermal efficiency, 199-201
interface design, 203
Sigma Stirling engine micro-CHP package, 200
system design, 201-3
schematic illustration, 180
small and micro CHP applications, 179-205
Stirling cycle, 183-8
constraints, 185
efficiency and other performance constraints, 185-8
theoretical Stirling cycle, 184
suited to micro CHP, 181-3
high efficiency, 183
long life and extended service intervals, 182
low emissions, 183
noise and vibration, 182-3
types, 188-9
free-piston Stirling engines, 189
kinematic Stirling engines, 188
V-type, single acting alpha-configuration, 467
Sunmachine, 198
Sunpower engine, 193
superheat temperature, 56
influence on CHP performance, 57
supermarkets, 385-6
surging, 168
system fault level analysis, 14-15
T-s chart, 52
Talbott's Heating, 174-5
techno-economics, 22
economic results variation of two key micro CHP technologies to annual electricity demand in target dwelling, 30
economic results variation of two key micro CHP technologies to annual thermal demand in target dwelling, 29
sensitivity of economic result to maximum ramp rate for 4 micro- CHP technologies, 34
sensitivity of economic result to minimum operating point for 4 micro-CHP technologies, 35
sensitivity of micro-CHP system value to prime mover capacity, 32
assessment of combined heat and power systems, 17-41
future trends, 39-41
modelling methodology, 23-8
onsite generation, 21-3
thermal coefficient of performance, 286-9
deployed prime movers, 460-70
four-stroke spark ignition engine operational principles, 463
internal combustion engines, 463-4
Rankine and organic Rankine cycle machines, 460-3
rotary engine schematic, 462
scroll engine, 462
steam/vapour engine schematic, 461
Stirling engines, 464-70
domestic applications, 459-508
economic and environmental analysis, 500-8
economical and environmental benefits estimation, 480-3
electrical demand, 490-2
base load, 490
biased load, 490
elective load, 490
electrical appliances in profile model, 491
kWh heating band, 492
heat demand modelling, 483-90
daily space heating bands used for modelling, 488
daily space heating demand, 487
daily space heating requirements, 485
domestic hot water thermal power requirements, 490
idealised space heating profile with TRVs, 486
occupancy pattern for modelling procedure, 484
space heating demand profile, 487
use of domestic hot water, 489
performance as response to heat demand efficiency per cycle and power level efficiencies, 496-8, 499
maximum outputs, 494-5
modulation capabilities, 495-6
run down, 494
start-up, 493-4
performance mapping, 492-500
breakdown of Whispergen Mk 3 run-down characteristic, 495
breakdown of Whispergen Mk 3 start-up characteristic, 494
cycle efficiencies, 497
exhaust composition analysis of Whispergen Mk 3 unit, 500
maximum outputs of Whispergen Mk 3 unit, 495
modulated thermal output of Whispergen Mk 3 unit, 496
power level efficiencies, 499
3 kWel MCHP appliance, 476
Cogen Micro MCHP unit, 472
components of 3 kWel MCHP appliance, 477
internal combustion engine MCHP, 473-4
Kingston 1 kWel MCHP unit, 472
Rankine cycle Lion MCHP, 471
Rankine cycle micro combined heat and power, 471-3
XRGI 15 Mini CHP system based on Toyota gas engine, 474
semi-detached heating band annual variation of Whispergen Mk 3 performance, 506
electricity profile 1 weekday, 503
electricity profile 3 weekend, 504
summary of simulation results, 507
system temperatures 1 weekday, 503
system temperatures 3 weekend, 504
system temperatures 4 weekend, 505
thermo-insulation, 465
thermochemical gasification, 98
cogeneration, 44-7
combined heat and power, 46-7
heat-only plant, 46
power-only plant, 45-6
'process heating only' plant and its T-s cycle, 46
schematic of typical stream-turbine cogeneration plant, 47
simple 'power-only' plant and its T-s cycle, 45
thermostatic radiator valves, 485
topping cycle, 405
total site profiles, 399
total site targeting, 414
transesterification, 106
transmission system operators, 82
TRIAD, 74
TRV See thermostatic radiator valves
TSO See transmission system operators
TSP See total site profiles
Turbec, 173-4
Turbec SpA, 405
turbine efficiency, 56-7
influence on CHP performance, 59
uninterruptible power supplies, 307
United Kingdom Building Regulation Part L2, 365
United Kingdom-wide Community Energy Programme, 429
university campuses, 379
UPS See uninterruptible power supplies
utilisation factor, 48
vapour compression cycle, 286
vertical integration, 72
volatile matter, 92
Volvo TAD1240, 129
VW Golf 1.6 engine, 129
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